Dersler Alınmış mı? Çöl Savaşının Değerlendirmesi ve Alman, İngiliz ve Türk Ordularında 1918 Sonrası Amfibik Çıkarma Uygulamaları

Bu makale, iki dünya savaşı arası dönemde ve İkinci Dünya Savaşı sırasında Birinci Dünya Savaşı’nın üç muharibinin çöl savaşında edindikleri askeri deneyimler ile amfibik harekatın yürütülmesi ve savunulmasını uygulayıp uygulamadıkları sorusuna odaklanıyor. Bu soru özellikle önem taşıyor çünkü Kuzey Afrika’daki seferlerin (1940-43) ve Kuzey Fransa’daki Normandiya Çıkarması’nın (1944) şartları birçok yönden Çanakkale’deki, Sina Çölü’ndeki ve Filistin’deki 1915-18 harekatlarına benziyordu.

Lessons Learned? The Evaluation of Desert Warfare and Amphibious Landing Practices in the German, British and Turkish Armies after 1918

The article focuses on the question if and how the three belligerents of the First World War applied their military experiences gained in desert warfare and the conduct and defence of amphibious operations during the interwar years and the Second World War. This question is of particular relevance, since the conditions for the campaigns in North Africa (1940-43) and the invasion of northern France (1944) in many ways resembled those of the 1915-18 operations at Gallipoli as well as in the Sinai desert and in Palestine.

PDF

___

ADA Serhan (2013) Türk-Fransız İlişkilerinde Hatay Sorunu 1918-1939 [The Hatay Question in Turkish-French Relations, 1918-1939], 2nd ed., İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, İstanbul.
AKTEN ZUR DEUTSCHEN AUSWÄRTIGEN POLITIK Series D, Vol. VII, 1937-1941, Die letzten Wochen vor Kriegsausbruch: 9. August bis 3. September 1939, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen, 1956.
ANGLIM Simon (2008) Callwell versus Graziani: How the British Army Applied ‘Small Wars’ Techniques in Major Operations in Africa and the Middle East, 1940-41, Small Wars & Insurgencies, Vol. 19 No. 4, pp. 588-608.
BALİ Rıfat N. (2007) Ordu Komutanı Orgeneral Cemil Cahit Toydemirʼin Almanya Gezisi: Hitler ile Görüşme [The Germany Tour of General Cemil Cahit Toydemir: Meeting with Hitler], Toplumsal Tarih, No. 165, pp. 38-42.
BARR Niall (2000) The Desert War Experience, Peter Liddle, John Bourne, Ian Whitehead (eds.), The Great World War 1914-1945. Vol. 1: Lightning Strikes Twice, Harper Collins, London, pp. 120-135.
BECKER Helmut (1990), Äskulap zwischen Reichsadler und Halbmond. Sanitätswesen und Seuchenbekämpfung im türkischen Reich während des Ersten Weltkriegs, Murken-Altrogge, Herzogenrath.
BEHÇET (1930) Büyük Harpte Mısır Seferi. 76 Numaralı Askerî Mecmuaya Lahikâdır [The Egypt Campaign in the Great War. Appendix to Military Journal No. 77], İstanbul, Askerî Matbaa.
BENARY (1928) Das englische Pferd im Palästina-Feldzuge, Militär-Wochenblatt Vol. 113 No. 24, cols. 959-961.
BENDER Roger James and LAW Richard D. (eds.) (1973) Uniforms, Organization and History of the Afrikakorps, R. James Bender Publishing, Mountain View.
BERELOVICH Eyal and Ruth Kark (2017) The Missing Element in Palestine: Infrastructure and Logistics During the First World War, First World War Studies, Vol. 8 No. 2/3, pp. 153-172.
BİLGE Fazıl (1937) Osmanlı Ordusu Başkomutanlığı Büyük Harpten daha muvaffakiyetli bir şekilde çıkabilir miydi? [Could the Ottoman High Command have emerged more successfully of the Great War?], Askerî Mecmua, Vol. 55 No. 105, pp. 260-266.
BURDICK Charles Burton (1972) Unternehmen Sonnenblume. Der Entschluß zum Afrika-Feldzug, Kurt Vowinckel, Neckargemünd, 1972.
CEVA Lucio (1990) The North African Campaign 1940-43. A Reconsideration, John Gooch (ed.), Decisive Campaigns of the Second World War, Frank Cass, London et al., pp 85-104.
CHASSEAUD Peter (2005) Comparison with D-Day, 1944, Id./ Peter Doyle (eds.), Grasping Gallipoli. Terrain, Maps and Failure at the Dardanelles, 1915, Spellmount, Staplehurst, pp. 265-269.
COŞAR Nevin and DEMİRCİ Sevtap (2006) The Mosul Question and the Turkish Republic: Before and After the Frontier Treaty, 1926, Middle Eastern Studies Vol. 42, No. 1, pp. 123-132.
DERİNGİL Selim (1989) Turkish Foreign Policy during the Second World War: An ‘Active’ Neutrality, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
ERGÜDEN Orhan (1936) Sahil Müdafaası [Coastal Defense], Piyade Mecmuası, Vol. 10 No. 98, pp. 7-10.
FAHRİ Mehmet (1933) Çanakkale Muharebelerinden Çıkartma Hususunda Alınan Dersler [Lessons drawn from the Battle of Çanakkale about the Landings], Harp Akademisi Matbaası, Yıldız [İstanbul].
FORTY George (1997) The Armies of Rommel, Arms and Armor, London.
FULLER John F. C. (1920) Tanks in the Great War 1914-1918, John Murray, London.
FULLER William C. (2014) What is a Military Lesson?, Thomas G. Mahnken et al. (eds.), Strategic Studies: A Reader, 2nd ed., Routledge, New York, 2014, pp. 22-39, p. 35
GLEICH Gerold (1926) Betrachtungen über die Kriegführung in Mesopotamien, Zwischen Kaukasus und Sinai. Jahrbuch des Bundes der Asienkämpfer, Vol. 3, pp. 81-105.
GROß Gerhard Paul (2012) Mythos und Wirklichkeit. Geschichte des operativen Denkens im deutschen Heer von Moltke d. Ä. bis Heusinger, Schöningh, Paderborn et al.
GRÜSSHABER Gerhard (2018) The ‘German Spiritʼ in the Ottoman and Turkish Army, 1908-1938. A History of Military Knowledge Transfer, DeGruyter Oldenbourg, Berlin.
GUSE, Felix (1929) Amtliche Geschichte des Gallipoli- Feldzuges: 1. Band, Militär-Wochenblatt, Vol. 111 No. 6, cols. 219-220.
HAKKI (1931) Topçu Atış Mektebindeki Konferanslardan: Asri Müstahkem Mevki ve Sahil Tahkimatı Nasıl Yapılmalıdırlar? [From the Conference at the Artillery School: How do Modern Fortified Positions and Shore Fortifications have to be made?], Topçu Mecmuası, Vol. 7 No. 74, pp. 23-25.
HAMER Rupert (1998) D-Day in Normandy and Suvla Bay, Sabertache, No. 39, pp. 3-9.
HARRISON Mark (2004) Medicine and Victory. British Military Medicine in the Second World War, Oxford University Press, Oxford et al.
HEATHCOTE Tony A. (1999) The British Field Marshals 1736-1997. A Biographical Dictionary, Leo Cooper, Barnsley.
HIGHAM Robin (1975) Weapons Old and Weapons New: Technology at D-Day, Deutsches Marine- Institut (ed.), Seemacht und Geschichte: Festschrift zum 80. Geburtstag von Friedrich Runge, MOV, Bonn, Bad Godesberg, pp. 123–132.
HILLGRUBER Andreas (1970) Staatsmänner und Diplomaten bei Hitler: Vertrauliche Aufzeichnungen über Unterredungen mit Vertretern des Auslandes. Vol. 2: 1942- 1944, Bernard & Graefe, Frankfurt am Main.
HUGHES Matthew (1997) General Allenby and the Palestine Campaign, 1917-18, Brian Holden Reid (ed.), Military Power. Land Warfare in Theory and Practice, Frank Cass, London, Portland, pp. 60-88.
HUNTEMÜLLER (1919) Als beratender Hygieniker in der Türkei, Medizinische Klinik, Vol. 15 No. 43, pp. 1100-1104.
KLINGBEIL [Erich] (1936) Küstenbefestigungen, Militär-Wochenblatt, Vol. 121 No. 24, col. 1317.
KLINGBEIL Erich (1921) Küstenverteidigung und Küstenbefestigung im Lichte der Weltkriegserfahrungen, Offene Worte, Charlottenburg [Berlin].
KREß VON KRESSENSTEIN Friedrich (1936) “Kriegführung in der Wüste”, Wissen und Wehr, Vol. 17 No. 9, pp. 565-590.
KÜPPERS Martin and Klaus-Michael Mallmann (2007) ‘Elimination of the Jewish National Home in Palestine’: The Einsatzkommando of the Panzer Army Africa, 1942, Yad Vashem Studies, Vol. 35 No. 1, pp. 111-141.
LIEB Peter (2018), Krieg in Nordafrika 1940-43, Reclam, Ditzingen, 2018.
MILANO James M. (1991) How Rommel Applied Lessons Learned in WWI To His Afrika Korps Operations in WWII, Armor. The Professional Development Bulletin of the Armor Branch, Vol. 50 No. 5, pp. 26-29.
MÖNCH Winfried (2001) Entscheidungsschlacht ‘Invasion’ 1944? Prognosen und Diagnosen, Franz Steiner, Stuttgart.
MORITZ Erhard (1977) Planungen für die Kriegführung des deutschen Heeres in Afrika und Vorderasien, Militärgeschichte, Vol. 16 No. 3, pp. 323-333.
MÜHLMANN Carl (1927) Der Kampf um die Dardanellen, 1915. Gerhard Stalling, Oldenburg/Berlin. NEHRING Walther Kurt (1969), Die Geschichte der deutschen Panzerwaffe 1916 bis 1945, Propyläen, Berlin.
NEŞ’ET M. (1930) Büyük Harpte ‘Suriye’ Cephesinde 48. Piyade Fırkası. 77 Numaralı Askerî Mecmua’nın Tarih Kısmı [The 48th Dvision at the Syrian Front in the Great War. History Supplement of the Military Journal No. 77], Askerî Matbaa, İstanbul.
NİZAMETTİN (1934) Büyük Harpte Çanakkale’ye Yapılmış Olan Büyük Deniz Zorlaması ve Bundan Bugün için Alınacak Öğütler [The Big Naval Attack on Çanakkale during the Great War and Advice to be taken from it for Today], Topçu Mecmuası, Vol. 10 No. 95, pp. 20-21.
OBERKOMMANDO DES HEERES (ed.) (2009) Taschenbuch für den Krieg in Wüste und Steppe, Reprint, Enforcer Pülz, Ubstadt-Weier.
ORAY İsmail (1947) Kuzey Afrika Savaşları [The North Africa Campaigns], Askerî Mecmua, No. 65 Vol. 141, pp. 48-52.
PASCHACHIUS Walter (1942) “Die Nachschubverhältnisse auf dem vorderasiatischen Kriegsschauplatz im Weltkriege”, Wissen und Wehr, Vol. 23 No. 2, pp. 49-56.
PATTON George Smith (1936) The Defense of Gallipoli. A General Staff Study, Headquarters Hawaiian Department, Fort Shafter, August 31.
PERETT Bryan (1988) Desert Warfare. From its Roman origins to the Gulf Conflict, Patrick Stephens, Wellingborough.
PLATZ [, Paul] (1932) Das deutsche Asienkorps. Ein Beitrag zur Aufstellung von Expeditionskorps, Militär-Wochenblatt, Vol. 116 No. 15, cols. 490-493.
PLATZ [, Paul] (1937) Die arabische Aufstandsbewegung 1917/18 und ihre Einwirkung auf den türkischen Palästina-Feldzug, Militär-Wochenblatt, Vol. 122 No. 11, cols. 641-645.
ROGAN Eugene (2015) The Fall of the Ottomans. The Great War in the Middle East 1914-1920, Allen Lane, London.
ROLF Rudi (1998) Der Atlantikwall: Die Bauten der deutschen Küstenbefestigungen, 1940 1945, Biblio, Osnabrück.
ROMMEL Lucie and Basil Henry Liddell Hart (eds.) (1953) The Rommel Papers, Basil Henry, London.
SADKOVICH James J. (1991) Of myths and Men: Rommel and the Italians in North Africa, 1940-1942, The International History Review, Vol. 13 No.2, pp. 284-313.
SCHMIDT Heinz Werner (1959) Mit Rommel in Afrika, Moewig, München.
SCIANNA Bastian Matteo (2018) Rommel Almighty? Italian Assessments of the ‘Desert Fox’ during and after the Second World War, Journal of Military History, Vol. 82 No. 1, pp. 125-146.
ŞİMŞEK Veysel (2015) ‘Backstabbing Arabs’ and ‘Shirking Kurds’: History, Nationalism, and Turkish Memory of World War I, Jonathan Vance et al. (eds.), The Great War: From Memory to History, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, Waterloo, 2015, pp. 99-126.
SORGUNCU Celalettin (1935) 1915 Senesi Başındaki Süveyş Kanalı Geçit Harekâtı ve İstihkâm Birliklerinin Kullanılması Hakkında Bir Tetkik [A Study Regarding the Suez Canal Crossing Operation in Early 1915 and the Use of Engineer Detatchments], Askerî Mecmua, Vol. 53 No. 99, pp. 978-1014.
SPELLER Ian (2004) In the Shadow of Gallipoli? Amphibious Warfare in the Interwar Period, Jenny Macleod (ed.), Gallipoli: Making History, Frank Cass, London, New York, pp. 141-142.
STARK Warner (1965) The German Africa Corps, Military Review, Vol. 45 No. 7, pp. 91-97.
SÜNAL Şeref (1944) Elâlemeyn Meydan Muharebesine Takaddüm Eden Harekât ve Elâlemyn Meydan Muharebesi [“The Operations Before the Battle at El Alamein and the Battle of El Alamein”], Askerî Mecmua, Vol. 62 No. 16, pp.54-64.
SYRETT David (2014) The Eyes of the Desert Rats. British Long-Range Reconnaissance Operations in the North African Desert 1940-43, Helion & Company, Solihull.
T.C. ERKAN-I HARBİYE UMMUMİYE (1338/1922) Cihan Harbinde Osmanlı Harekatı Tarihçesi, Vol. 1: Çanakkale Muharebatı [History of the Ottoman Operations in the World War, Vol. 1: The Çanakkale Campaign], Matbaa-i Askeriye, Dersaadet [İstanbul].
TAMARI Salim (2011) Year of the Locust. A Soldier’s Diary and the Erasure of Palestine’s Ottoman Past, University of California Press, Berkeley.
TAYLOR John M. (1983) North African Campaign: Logistics Lessons Learned, Military Review, Vol. 63 No. 10, pp. 46-55.
TEMPEL Christoph (1992) Kurze Beschreibung der Geschichte des Westwallbaus in den Jahren 1938- 1945, Eberhard Elfert et al. (eds.), Wir bauen des Reiches Sicherheit: Mythos und Realität des Westwalls, 1938-1945, Argon, Berlin, pp. 9-31.
THOß Bruno (2002), Erster Weltkrieg - Zweiter Weltkrieg. Ein Vergleich. Krieg, Kriegserlebnis, Kriegserfahrung in Deutschland, Schöningh, Paderborn et al.
TILL Geoffrey (2000) Hitting the beach. The amphibious experience, Peter Liddle, John Bourne, Ian Whitehead (eds.), The Great World War 1914-1945. Vol. 1: Lightning Strikes Twice, Harper Collins, London, pp. 180-200.
TOKUS Gökhan (1984) Kuzey Afrika Seferi: Alınan Lojistik Dersler [North African Campaign: Logistics Lessons Learned”], Kara Kuvvetleri Dergisi, No. 74, pp. 118-127.
TRUMPENER Ulrich (1975) German Officers in the Ottoman Empire, 1880-1918. Some Comments on their Backgrounds, Functions and Accomplishments, Jahrbuch des Instituts für deutsche Geschichte, Vol. 4 Supplement No. 1, pp. 30-43.
TÜRKKAN Hakan (2007) Askerî Mecmua’da Birinci Dünya Savaşı Türk Cepheleri (1-146 Sayılar) [ The First World War Turkish Fronts in the Military Journal (Nos. 1- 146)], M.A. Thesis, Kırıkkale Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Tarih Anabilim Dalı, 2007 {https://www.ulusaltezmerkezi.net/askeri-mecmuada-birinci-dunya-savasi-turk-cepheleri-1-145-sayilar}; last retrieved: March 2019.
UNWALLA Pheroze (2008) Between Nationalism and Reconciliation: The Turkish Government and the Dual Narrativization of the Battle of Gallipoli, 1923-2007, M.A. Thesis, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby/Canada.
US NARA HD A-895, R[udolf-Christoph] von Gersdorff, Critique of the Defense against Invasion, 1945.
US NARA HD B-021, Fritz Ziegelmann, 352nd [German] Infantry Division. Special Questions (Normandy), 1946.
US NARA HD B-169, Theodor Krancke, Naval Group West in Defense against the Allied Landing; of Historical and Technical Interest, 1946.
US NARA HD B-234, Max Pemsel, Preparations for Invasion. Foreword by [U.S.] Captain George Blanchard, 1946.
US NARA HD B-260, Gerhard Triepel, Fighting on the Cotentin Peninsula, with Special Reference to the Coast Artillery: Cotentin Artillery (6-18 Jun. 1944), 1946.
US NARA HD B-652, Günther Blumentritt, Effect of Fortifications on Strategic Planning, 1947.
US NARA HD B-663, Ernst Goettke, Coast Artillery- Atlantic Wall, 1947.
US NARA HD B-720, Leo Geyr von Schweppenburg, The Theory behind Troop Dispositions in France. Commentary to Speidel, Hans: Rommel’s Views (1 Apr.-May 1944), 1947.
US NARA HD P-129, Fritz Bayerlein, Sigismund Kienow, German Experiences in Desert Warfare During World War II. Vol. I, 1952.
US NARA HD T-010, Erhard Raus, German Defense Tactics against Russian Breakthroughs, 1951.
UYAR Mesut and Edward J. Erickson (2009) A Military History of the Ottomans. From Osman to Atatürk, Praeger Security International, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford.
VALENTIN Rolf (1984) Ärzte im Wüstenkrieg. Der deutsche Sanitätsdienst im Afrikafeldzug 1941-1943, Bernard & Graefe, Koblenz.
VAN CREVELD Martin (1974) Rommel’s Supply Problem, 1941-42, Journal of the Royal United Services Institute Vol. 119 No. 3, pp. 67-73.
VON DER GOLTZ Colmar (1914) “Die Türkei im zweiten Jahre ihrer Wiedererhebung”, Asiatisches Jahrbuch, pp. 3-14
VON HARNIER Wilhelm (1969) Artillerie im Küstenkampf, J.F. Lehmanns, München.
VON HARNIER Wilhelm (1955) Küstenartillerie und Atlantikwall, Marine-Rundschau Vol. 52 No. 4, pp. 91-92.
WALDMANN Anton and Wilhelm Hoffmann (eds.) (1936) Lehrbuch der Militärhygiene, Julius Springer, Berlin.
WAVELL Archibald Percival (1928) The Palestine Campaigns, Constable, London.
WEGMÜLLER Hans (1979) Die Abwehr der Invasion. Die Konzeption des Oberbefehlshabers West 1940-44, Rombach, Freiburg.
WELSCH Otto (1935) Das Gallipoliwunder oder die Schlacht der verpaßten Chancen, Wissen und Wehr, Vol. 16 No. 7, pp. 74-76.
WELSCH Otto (1936) Der Anteil berittener Truppen des ‘Ägyptischen Expeditionskorps’ an dem Kampfe um Palästina, Wissen und Wehr, Vol. 17 No.7, pp. 693-709.
WESTPHAL Siegfried (1960) Notes on the Campaign in North Africa, 1941-1943, Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, Vol. 55 No. 617, pp. 70-81.
WILLIAMS Claud H. and Russell McGuirk (eds.) (2013) Light Car Patrols 1916-19. War and Exploration in Egypt and Libya With the Model T Ford. A Memoir, Silphium Press, London.
WOLF Klaus (2008) Gallipoli 1915. Das deutsch-türkische Militärbündnis im Ersten Weltkrieg, Report, Sulzbach/Taunus, Bonn.
ZİYA Komut (1946) I. Cihan Harbinde Çanakkale ve Baltık Çıkarmaları ile II. Cihan Harbinde Şimali Afrika ve İtalya Çıkarmalarının Mukayesesi. 139 Sayılı Askerî Mecmuaya Lâhikadır [Comparison of the Çanakkale and Baltic Landings in the First World War and the Landings in North Africa and Italy in the Second World War. Supplement to the Military Journal No. 139], Askerî Basımevi, İstanbul.