Küresel finansal krizin Almanya'daki Türk etnik girişimler üzerindeki etkileri: Sosyal sermayenin rolü

Bu çalışmanın temel amacı, 2007 küresel fnansal krizinin Almanyadaki Türk etnik girişimlerinin ekonomik faaliyetlerine yansımalarını, sosyal sermaye bakış açısıyla incelemektir. Bu çalışma kapsamında, içsel ve dışsal sosyal sermaye sınıfandırmasından hareketle geliştirilen hipotezler, ilgili literatür ışığında hazırlanan soru kağıdı aracılığıyla test edilmeye çalışılmıştır. Almanyanın Köln ve Dusseldorf şehirlerinde faaliyette bulunan 200 Türk etnik girişimden alınan birincil veriler sonucunda elde edilen bulgular, krizin dünya genelinde yarattığı olumsuz etkiye rağmen Almanyada faaliyette bulunan Türk etnik girişimlerinin ekonomik faaliyetlerini geliştirerek sürdürmelerinde, sahip oldukları sosyal sermayenin önemli bir rol oynadığını ortaya koymaktadır. Özellikle bağların gücünün, Almanyadaki Türk etnik girişimlerin küresel fnansal kriz dönemindeki faaliyetlerini etkiledikleri görülmektedir

The effects of the global financial crisis on Turk ethnic enterprises in Germany: The role of the social capital

The aim of this study is to examine the effects of the 2007 global fnancial crisis on Turk ethnic entrepreneurs in Germany from the point of view of social capital. In this context, we used the internal and external social capital classifcation. We tried to test the hypotheses by questionnaire prepared in light of related literature. The sample of this study contains 200 Turk ethnic entrepreneurs in Köln and Dusseldorf. Despite the negative effects of the global crisis all over the world, the results of this study show that the social capital has an important role in the success of the Turk ethnic entrepreneurs in Germany. The strength of the ties affects the activities of the Turk ethnic entrepreneurs in Germany during the global fnancial crisis.

___

  • Adler, P. S. ve Kwon, S. (2002). Social Capi- tal: Prospects for A New Concept. Academy of Management Review . 27 (1), 17-40.
  • Akgüç, Ö. (2009). Kriz Nedeni ve Çıkış Yolları. Muhasebe ve Finansman Dergisi. 42, 6-15.
  • Akgül, A. (2005). Tıbbi Araştırmalarda İs- tatistiksel Analiz Teknikleri «Spss Uygula- maları” . 3.baskı. Ankara: Emek Ofset.
  • Aktan, C. C. ve Şen, H. (2001). Ekonomik Kriz: Nedenler ve Çözüm Önerileri. Yeni Türkiye Dergisi Ekonomik Kriz Özel Sayısı. 7(42), 1225-1230.
  • Alantar, D. (2008). Küresel Finansal Kriz Nedenleri ve Sonuçları Üzerine Bir Değer- lendirme. Maliye ve Finans Yazıları. 08 Ka- sım 2014 tarihinde http://www.fnanskulup. org.tr/ maliye fnans/maliyefnans.html ad- resinden erişildi.
  • Allik, J. ve Realo, A. (2004). Individualism- Collectivism and Social Capital. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. 35 (1), 29-49.
  • Altınay, L. ve Altınay, E. (2008). Factors Inf- luencing Business Growth: the Rise of Tur- kish Entrepreneurship in the UK. Internati- onal Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research. 14 (1), 24 46.
  • Altuntepe, N. (2009). 2008 Küresel Krizinin Ülkelerin İstihdam Yapısı Üzerine Etkile- rinin Dinamik Bir Analizi.  SDÜ Vizyoner Dergisi.  1(1), 129-145.
  • Amorós, J. E. ve Bosma, N. (2013). Glo- bal Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) 2013 Global Report.
  • ATİAD (2010). Avrupa ve Almanya’daki Türk Girişimciler. Düsseldorf (Almanya): ATİAD Yayınları. ATİAD (2011). Türk-Alman Girişimci Kı- lavuzu. Düsseldorf (Almanya): ATİAD Ya- yınları.
  • Baker, W.E. (1990). Market Networks and Corporate Behavior. American Journal of Sociology. 96, 589-625.
  • Barrett, G. A., Jones, T. P. ve McEvoy, D. (1996). Ethnic Minority Business: Theoreti- cal Discourse in Britain and North America. Urban Studies . 33(4-5), 783-809.
  • Barrett, G., Jones, T., McEvoy, D. ve Mc- Goldrick, C. (2002). The Economic Embed- dedness of Immigrant Enterprise in Britain. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research. 8 (1/2), 11-31.
  • Basu, A. (1998). An Exploration of Entrep- reneurial Activity among Asian Small Busi- ness in Britain. Small Business and Econo- mics. 10, 313–326
  • Basu, A. ve Altinay, E. (2002). The Interac- tion between Culture and Entrepreneurship in London’s Immigrant Business. Interna- tional Small Business Journal. 20 (4), 371- 394.
  • Bates, T. (1999). Race, Self-Employment, and Upward Mobility: An Illusive American Dream; Response to John Sibley Butler’s Review Essay. Small Business Economics . 12, 189-190.
  • Bates, T. (1997). Race, Self-Employment and Upward Mobility: An Illusive American Dream. Washington, D.C: The Woodrow Wilson Center Press.
  • Batjargal, B. (2003). Social Capital and En- trepreneurial Performance in Russia: A longitudinal Study. Organization Studies . 24, 535-556.
  • Baycan Levent, T. ve Kundak, S. (2006). İs- viçre’nin Girişimci Türkleri. Uluslararası Girişimcilik Kongresi, Bişkeke 25-27 Ma- yıs, 405-417.
  • Baycan-Levent, T. ve Nijkamp, P. (2009). Characteristics of Migrant Entrepreneurs- hip in Europe. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development. 21(4), 375–397.
  • Baycan-Levent, ve T., Kundak, S. (2009). Motivation and Driving Forces of Turkish Entrepreneurs in Switzerland, Innovation. The European Journal of Social Science Re- search. 22(3), 283-308
  • Bourdieu, P., ve Wacquant, L. (1992). An Invitation to Refexive Sociology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  • Buğra, A. (2001). Kriz ve Geleneksel Sosyal Refah Devleti. İstanbul: VI. Arastırma Zir- vesi.
  • Burt, R. (2004). Structural Holes versus Network Closure as Social Capital . 04 Ma- yıs 2004 tarihinde http://faculty.chicagogsb. edu/ronald.burt/research/SHNC.pdf adre- sinden erişildi.
  • Burt, R. (2005a). Brokerage and closure. NewYork: Oxford University Press. Burt, R. (2005b). Brokerage and Closure: An Introduction to Social Capital. Academy of Management Review . 31 (3), 757-772.
  • Burt, R. S. (1997). The Contingent Effect of Social Capital. Administrative Science Qu- arterly. 42 (2), 339-366. Burt, R. S. (1992). Structural Holes: The So- cial Structure of Competition. Harvard: Har- vard University Press.
  • Caliendo, M. ve Kritikos, A. S. (2009). Start- ups by the Unemployed: Characteristics, Survival and Direct Employment Effects. Small Business Economics An Entrepre- neurship Journal.
  • Chaganti, R. ve Greene, P. (2002). Who Are Ethnic Entrepreneurs? A Study of Entrep- reneurs’ Ethnic Involvement and Business Characteristics. Journal of Small Business Management. 40(2), 126–143.
  • Coleman, J. (1990). Foundations of Social Theory. England: The Belknap Press of Har- vard University Press.
  • Coleman, J. (1994). Foundations of Social Theory. Cambridge: Belknap Press. Collins, C. J. ve Clark, K. D. (2003). Stra- tegic Human Resource Practices, Top Ma- nagement Team Social Networks and Firm Performance: The Role of Human Resource Practices in Creating Organizational Com- petitive Advantage. Academy of Manage- ment Journal. 46(6),740-751.
  • Constant, A. F., Shachmurove, Y., ve Zim- mermann, K. F. (2003). What Makes an En- trepreneur and does it Pay? : Native Men, Turks, and Other Migrants in Germany. IZA Discussion paper series , No. 940.
  • Constant, A., Shachmurove, Y. ve Zimmer- mann, K. F. (2001). The Role of Turkish Immigrants in Entrepreneurial Activities in Germany. Penn Institute for Economic Rese- arch, PIER Working Paper 05-029.
  • Constant, A. ve Zimmerman, K. (2006). The Making of Entrepreneurs in Germany: Are Native Men and Immigrants Alike?. Small Business Economics. 26, 279–300.
  • Coşkun, A. (2011). Küresel Krizin Girişim- cilik Üzerine Etkisi: Piyasaya Yeni Giren Firmalar Açısından Ülke Karşılaştırması. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi. 2, 128-134.
  • Crul, M. ve Vermeulen, H. (2003). The Se- cond Generation in Europe. International Migration Review . 37 (4), 765-986. Çalışma ve Sosyal Güvenlik Bakanlığı Yurt Dışı Teşkilatı ile Dışişleri Bakanlığı (www. csgb.gov.tr)
  • Dyer, L. M. ve Ross, C. A. (2000). Ethnic Entreprises and their Clientele. Journal of Small Business Management. 39 (2), 48-66. Evans, M. (1989). Immigrant Entrepre- neurship: Effect of Ethnic Market Size and Isolated Labor Pool. American Sociological Review 54(6), 950–962.
  • Fadahunsi, A., Smallbone, D. ve Supri, S. (2000). Networking and Ethnic Minority Enterprise Development: Insights From A North London Study. Journal of Small Bu- siness and Enterprise Development. 7 (3), 228-40.
  • Fernandez, R. M., Castilla, E. J. ve Moore, P. (2000). Social Capital at Work: Networks and Employment at a Phone Center. Ameri- can Journal of Sociology. 10(5), 1288-1356. Fukuyama, f. (1995). Global Economy and Social Capital. Foreign Affairs. 74 (5), 89- 104.
  • Gökalp, N. (2003). Ekonomide Güven Fak- törü. Yönetim ve Ekonomi. 10 (2), 163-174. Granovetter, M. S. (1973). The Strength of Weak Ties. American Journal of Sociology. 78 (6), 1360-1380.
  • Gries, T., ve Naudé, W. (2010). Entrepre- neurship, Structural Change and A Global Economic Crisis. Working paper // World Institute for Development Economics Rese- arch, No. 57, ISBN 978-92-9230-294-8.
  • Gulati, R., Dialdin D. A., ve Wang, L. (2002). Organizational Networks. J.A.C., Baum (Der.). The Blackwell Companion to Organizations : 281-303, Oxford: Blackwell. Gulati, R., ve Gargiulo, M. (1999). Whe- re do Interorganizational Networks Come from? The American Journal of Sociology. 104 (5), 1439.
  • Hetty Van Emmerick, I. J. (2006). Gender Differences in the Creation of Different Ty- pes of Social Capital: A Multilevel Study. Social Networks. 28 (1), 24-37.
  • Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s Consequen- ces . Second Edition, Newbury Park: Lon- don.
  • House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dor- fman, P. W., ve Gupta, V. (2004). Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLO- BE Study of 62 Societies. Sage Publications: London.
  • Ibarra, H. (1995). Race, Opportunity and Diversity of Social Circles in Managerial Networks. Academy of Management Jour- nal. 38(3), 673-703.
  • Iyer, G. R. ve Shapiro, J. M. (1999). Ethnic Entrepreneurial and Marketing Systems: Implications fort he Global Economy. Jour- nal of International Marketing. 7(4), 83- 110.
  • İlhan-Nas, T., Şahin, K. ve Çilingir, Z. (2011) International Ethnic Entrepreneurship: An- tecedents, Outcomes and Environmental Context. International Business Review . 20, 614-626.
  • Janjuha-Jivraj, S. (2004). The Impact of the Mother during Family Business Succession: Examples from the Asian Business Commu- nity. J ournal of Ethnic and Migration Studi- es. 30(4), 781–797.
  • Jauer, J., Liebig, T., Martin, J. P. ve Puhani, P. (2014). Directorate For Employment, La- bour And Social Affairs Employment, Labour and Social Affairs Committee OECD Social, Employment And Migration Wor- king Papers No 155.
  • Johnson, P. J. (2000). Ethnic Differences in Self-Employment among Southeast Asian Refugees in Canada. Journal of Small Busi- ness Management , 38 (4), 786.
  • Karagül, M., ve Masca, M. (2005). Sosyal Sermaye Üzerine Bir İnceleme. Ekonomik ve Sosyal Arastırmalar Dergisi . 1: 37-52.
  • Kazgan, G. (2012). Finansal Köpükte Hız- lı Büyüme, Dengesizlikler ve 2008 Türkiye Krizi”. Türkiye Ekonomisinde Krizler. İstan- bul Üniversitesi Yayınları, 275-299.
  • Klapper, L. ve Love, I. (2010). The Impact of the Financial Crisis on New Firm Regis- tration. The World Bank Development Re- search Group Finance and Private Sector Development Team October 2010, Public Policy Research Working Paper 5444, The World Bank Development Research Group Finance and Private Sector Development Team.
  • Kloosterman, R. C. (2003).Creating oppor- tunities. Policies Aimed at Increasing Ope- nings for Immigrant Entrepreneurs in the Netherlands. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development. 15, 167–181.
  • Köllinger, P. ve Minniti, M. (2006). Not for Lack of Trying: American Entrepreneurship in Black and White. Small Business Econo- mics. 27, 59–79.
  • Krackhardt, D. ve HANSON, J. R. (1993). Informal Networks: The Company Behind the Chart. Harvard Business Review. 71, 104-111.
  • Kyle, D. (1999). The Otavalo Trade Diaspo- ra: Social Capital and Transnational Entrep- reneurship. Ethnic and RacialStudies 22 (2), 422–446.
  • Labianca, G., Brass, D. J. ve Gray, B. (1998). Social Networks and Perceptions of Interg- roup Confict. Academy of Management Journal. 41 (1), 55-67.
  • Leana, R. C. ve Van Buren, H. J. (1999). Organizational Social Capital and Employ- ment Practices. Academy of Management Review. 24 (3), 538-546.
  • Lin, N. (1999). Social Networks and Status Attainment. Annual Review of Sociology. 25, 467-487. Lofstrom, M. (2002). Labor Market Assimi- lation and the Self-employment Decision of Immigrant Entrepreneurs. Journal of Popu- lation Economics . 15, 83-114.
  • Luthans, F., Luthans, K. W. ve Luthans, B. C. (2004). Positive Psychological Capital: Be- yond Human and Social Capital. Business Horizons . 47(1), 45-50.
  • Makabe, T. (1999).Ethnic Hegemony: The Japanese Brazilians in Agriculture, 1908– 1968. Ethnic and RacialStudies. 22 (4), 702–723.
  • Masurel, E., Nijkamp, P., Tastan, M., ve Vin- digni, G. (2002). Motivations and Perfor- mance Conditions for Ethnic Entrepreneurs- hip. Growth & Change. 33(2), 238–260.
  • Masurel, E., Nijkamp, P., ve Vindigni, G. (2004). Breeding Places for Ethnic Entrep- reneurs: A Comparative Marketing Appro- ach. Entrepreneurship & Regional Develop- ment. 16, 77–86.
  • Menzies, T.V., Filion, L.J., Brenner, G.A. ve Elgie, S. (2007). Measuring Ethnic Commu- nity Involvement: Development and Initial Testing of an Index. Journal of Small Busi- ness Management. 45(2), 267–282.
  • Mora, M. ve Davila, A. (2005). Ethnic Group Size, Linguistic Isolation, and Im- migrant Entrepreneurship in the USA. En- trepreneurship & Regional Development. 17, 389–404.
  • Mora, T. M. ve Dávila, A. (2007). Ethnic Group Size, Linguistic Isolation, and Im- migrant Entrepreneurship in the USA. En- trepreneurship and Regional Development: An International Journal. 17 (5), 389-404.
  • Nahapiet, J. ve Ghoshal, S. (1998). Social Capital, Intellectual Capital and the Orga- nizational Advantage. Academy of Manage- ment Review. 23 (2), 242-286.
  • OECD (2013, 2014). 08 Kasım 2014 tari- hinde www.oecd.org/migration/imo adre- sinden erişildi.
  • OECD (2014a), International Migration Outlook.
  • Oktar, S. ve Dalyancı, L. (2010). Finansal Kriz Teorileri ve Türkiye Ekonomisinde 1990 Sonrası Finansal Krizler. Marmara Üniversitesi İ.İ.B.F. Dergisi. 29(2), 1-22.
  • Oorschot, W. V., ve Atrs, W. (2005). The So- cial Capital of European Welfare States: The Crowding Out Hypothesis Revisited. Jour- nal of European Social Policy, 15 (1): 5- 26.
  • Özdamar, K. (2002). Paket Programlar İle İstatistiksel Veri Analizi -1 . 4. Baskı. Eskişe- hir: Kaan Kitabevi.
  • Özen, S., ve Aslan, Z. (2006). İçsel ve Dış- sal Sosyal Sermaye Yaklaşımları Açısından Türk Toplumunun Sosyal Sermaye Potan- siyeli: Ortadoğu Sanayi ve Ticaret Merkezi (OSTM) Örneği. Akdeniz İİBF Dergisi. 6 (12), 130-161.
  • Özüekren, A.Ş. ve R. Van Kempen (1997). Turks in European Cities: Housing and Ur- ban Segregation. Utrecht: European Resear- ch Centre on Migration and Ethnic Relati- ons (eds). Phan, M. B., ve Luk, C. M. (2007). I don’t Say I have a Business in Chinatown: Chine- se sub-Ethnic Relations in Toronto’s China- town West. Ethnic and RacialStudies . 31(2), 294–326.
  • Portes, A., Haller, W. J., ve Guarnizo, L. E. (2002). Transnational Entrepreneurs: An Alternative from of İmmigrant Economic Adaptation. American Sociological Review , 67(2), 278–298.
  • Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling Alone. New York: The Brookings Institution Press. Putnam, R. D. (1995) Bowling Alone: Ame- rica’s Declining Social Capital. Journal of Democracy. 6 (1), 65-78.
  • Raijman, R. (2001). Determinants of En- trepreneurial Intentions: Mexican Immig- rants in Chicago.   Journal of Socio-Econo- mics . 30(5), 393-41.
  • Ram, M. ve Hillin, G. (1994). Achieving ‘Break-out’: Developing Mainstream Ethnic Minority Businesses. Small Business and Enterprise Development. 1 (2), 15-21.
  • Ram, M., Smallbone, D., Deakins, D., ve Jo- nes, T. (2003). Banking on ‘‘Break-out’’: Fi- nance and Development of Ethnic Minority Businesses. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. 29(4), 663–681.
  • Rath, J. (2002). Unraveling the Rag Trade: Immigrant Entrepreneurship in Seven World Cities. Oxford: Berg.
  • Rath, J. (2006). Entrepreneurship Among Migrants and Returnees: Creating New Op- portunities. International Symposium on International Migration and Development. Italy, 28-30 June 2006.
  • Salaff, J. W. (2005). Subethnicity in the Chinese Diaspora. International Migrati- on. 43(3), 3–7.
  • Sargut, A. S. (2001). Kültürler Arası Fark- lılaşma ve Yönetim. Ankara: İmge Kitabevi. Sargut, A. S. (2003). Kurumsal Alanlarda- ki Örgüt Yapılarının Oluşmasında ve Eko- nomik İşlemlerin Yürütülmesinde Güvenin Rolü. Sosyal Bilimlerde Güven. Ferda Er- dem (Editör), Ankara: Vadi Yayınları, 89- 124.
  • Schumpeter, J. A. (2012). The Theory of Economic Development, (translation of Theorie der wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung), New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publis- hers.
  • Shinnar, R. ve Young, C. (2008). Hispanic Immigrant Entrepreneurs in the Las Vegas Metropolitan Area: Motivations for Entry into Outcomes of Self-employment. Jour- nal of Small Business Management . 46(2), 242–262.
  • Sternberg, R., Vorderwülbecke, A. ve Brixy, U. (2012). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM), Country Report Germany.
  • Stone, I., ve Stubbs, C. (2007). Enterprising Expatriates: Lifestyle Migration and En- trepreneurship in Rural Southern Europe. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development. 19, 433–450.
  • Şen, F., Ulusoy, Y. ve Şentürk, C. (2007). Av- rupa Birliği ve Almanya’da Türk Girişimci- lerin Ekonomik Gücü. Türkiye Araştırmalar Merkez Vakfı.
  • Teixeira, C. (2001). Community Resources and Opportunities in Ethnic Economies: A Case Study of Portuguese and Black Entrep- reneurs in Toronto. Urban Studies. 38(11), 2055–2078. Trıandıs, Harry C. ve Suh, Eunkook M. (2002). Cultural Infuences on Personality. Annual Review of Personality. 53, 153-160.
  • Uzzi, B. (1996). The Sources and Consequ- ences of Embeddedness for the Economic Performance of Organizations: The Network Effect. American Sociological Review. 61, 674-698.
  • Valdez, Z. (2008). The Effect of Social Ca- pital on White, Korean, Mexican and Black Business Owners Earnings in the US. Jour- nal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. 34(6), 955–971.
  • Waldinger, R., Ward, R., Aldrich, H. E. ve Stanfeld, J. H. (1990), Ethnic Entrepre- neurs: Immigrant Businesses in Industrial Societies . Newbury Park: Sage Publications. Werbner, P. (1990). Renewing an Industrial Past: British Pakistani Entrepreneurship in Manchester. Migration. 8, 7-41.
  • Western, J., Stimson, R., Baum, S., ve Gel- lecum, Y. (2005). Measuring Community Strength and Social Capital. Regional Studi- es . 39 (8), 1095-1109.
  • Wong, A. ve Tjosvold, D. (2006). Collecti- vist Values for Learning in Organizational Relationships in Chine: The Role of Trust and Vertical Coordination. Asia Pacifc Journal of Management. 23(3), 299-317.
  • Yelkikalan, N. ve Köse, C. (2012). The Effe- cts of the Financial Crisis on Corporate So- cial Responsibility. International Journal of Business and Social Science. 3(3), 292-300.