VİKTORYAN İNGİLTERE’DE EVRİM VE TOPLUM

Viktorya Dönemi İngilteresi’nde, yani 19. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında genelde bi-limin, özelde ise evrim teorisinin toplumsal tartışmaların merkezinde olduğusöylenebilir. Bu tartışmalar sadece modern İngiliz toplumunda bilimin oynama-sı gereken rol ile ilgili değildir. Bu dönemde bilim, bilim-dışı alanlara da ışıktutan, siyasetten toplumsal reforma kadar birçok alanda rehber olması beklenenbir uğraş halini almıştır. Bilhassa biyolojik evrim teorisi Viktoryan Dönem’deırk, eşitlik, ilerleme, sekülerleşme, anarşi ve terör gibi birçok konu ile ilişkilen-dirilmiştir. Bu tartışmalar bilim insanları arasında kalmamış, entelektüellerde vesokaktaki insanda da ilgi uyandırmıştır. Birçok düşünür, ideolog ve politikacıtoplumsal reform taleplerini yine bu teoriye atıfla meşrulaştırmaya, destekle-meye çalışmıştır. Bu makalede, Darwinci evrim teorisinin Viktoryan dönemdetoplumsal tartışmalarda nasıl kullanıldığına ve/veya istismar edildiğine odakla-nılacak, böylece bilimsel teorilerin bilimdışı alanlarda oynadığı role ışık tutulacaktır.

EVOLUTION AND SOCIETY IN VICTORIAN ENGLAND

In Victorian England, science in general -and evolutionary theory in particular- was at the center of social discussions. To its enthusiasts, science was a torch that could be expected to illuminate even socio-political phenomena; an endeavor that would provide guidance even for politics and social reform. Evolutionar theory in particular was wielded to inform discussion on such topics as race, equality, progress, secularization, anarchy and terror. These discussions sparked great interest in evolution amongst Victorian intellectuals, scientists and layman. Thinkers, ideologues and politicians each sought to legitimate and promulgate their social reform proposals by appeal to evolutionary theory. This article will focus on how Darwinian evolutionary theory in particular was used and abused in Victorian controversies, and will thus use it as a case study for an examina- tion of the deliberative (and often rhetorical) utilization of scientific theories in debates about socio-political phenomena.

___

Atkinson, Juliette; Victorian Biography Reconsidered: A Study of Nineteenth-Century ‘Hid- den’ Lives, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.

Barry, John; Environment and Social Theory, New York: Routledge, 1999.

Beiser, Frederick C.; After Hegel: German Philosophy 1840–1900, Princeton: Princeton Uni- versity Press, 2014.

Bilgili, Alper; “An Ottoman Response to Darwinism: İsmail Fennî on Islam and Evolution”, British Journal for the History of Science, 48, 4, 2015.

Bilgili, Alper; “Beating the Turkish hollow in the struggle for existence: Darwin, social Darwinism and the Turks”, Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, 65, 2017.

Bilgili, Alper; Bilim Ne Değildir? Yeni-Ateist Bilim Anlayışının Felsefi ve Sosyolojik Analizi, Doğu Kitabevi, İstanbul, 2017.

Bowler, Peter J.; Darwin Deleted: Imagining a World without Darwin, Chicago: The Univer- sity of Chicago Press, 2013.

Broks, Peter; Understanding Popular Science, Berkshire: Open University Press, 2006.

Brooke, John Hedley; “Darwin and Victorian Christianity”, M. J. S. Hodge ve Gregory Radi- ck, The Cambridge Companion to Darwin içinde (ss. 192-213), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.

Cantor, Geoffrey; Religion and the Great Exhibition of 1851, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.

Chadwick, Owen; Prince Albert and the University, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.

Chapman, Allan; “Victorian Astronomy: The Age of the ‘Grand Amateur’”, Raymond Flood, Adrian Rice ve Robin Wilson, Mathematics in Victorian Britain içinde (ss. 201-238), Ox- ford: Oxford University Press, 2011.

Churchich, Nicholas; Marxism and Alienation, Londra: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1990.

Clodd, Edward; Memories, Londra: Watts & Co., 1926.

Corsi, Pietro ve Paul J. Weindling; “Darwinism in Germany, France and Italy”, David Kohn, The Darwinian Heritage içinde (ss. 683-729), Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985.

Dawkins, Richard; Kör Saatçi, (çeviren: Feryal Halatçı), Ankara: Tübitak Popüler Bilim Ki- tapları, 2004.

Dawson, Gowan; Darwin, literature and Victorian Respectability, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.

Dupré, John; Human Nature and the Limits of Science, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.

Fichman, Martin; Evolutionary Theory and Victorian Culture, New York: Humanity Books, 2002.

Fisher, David C.; “Russia and the Crystal Palace in 1851”, Jeffrey A. Auerbach ve Peter H. Hoffenberg, Britain, the Empire, and the World at the Great Exhibition of 1851 içinde (ss. 123-146), Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008.

Gilmour, Robin; The Victorian Period: The Intellectual and Cultural Context of English Lite- rature 1830-1890, Londra: Routledge, 2013.

Glendening, John; The Evolutionary Imagination in Late-Victorian Novels, Hampshire: Ash- gate, 2007.

Gould, Stephen Jay; Bully for Brontosaurus, Londra: Penguin Books, 1992.

Graves JR., Joseph L.; The Emperor’s New Clothes: Biological Theories of Race at the Mille- nium, New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2001.

Gregorio, Mario A. Di; From Here to Eternity: Ernst Haeckel and Scientific Faith, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2005.

Gregory, Frederick; Scientific Materialism in Nineteenth Century Germany, Dordrecht: D. Reidel Pub., 1977.

Hanioğlu, M. Şükrü; “Blueprints for a Future Society: Late Ottoman Materialists on Science, Religion, and Art”, Elisabeth Özdalga, Late Ottoman Society: The Intellectual Legacy içinde (ss. 27–116), Londra: Routledge Curzon, 2005.

Harris, Ian; “Burke and Religion”, David Dwan ve Christopher J. Insole, The Cambridge Companion to Edmund Burke içinde (ss. 92-103), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.

Harrison, Peter; “The Cultural Authority of Natural History in Early Modern Europe”, Denis Alexander ve Ronald L. Numbers, Biology and Ideology: From Descartes to Dawkins içinde (ss. 11-35), Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2010.

Haught, John F.; “Darwin, Design, and Divine Providence”, William A., Dembski ve Michael Ruse, Debating Design: From Darwin to DNA içinde (ss. 229-245), New York: Cambrid- ge University Press, 2004.

Hobhouse, Hermione; The Crystal Palace and the Great Exhibition, Londra: Continuum, 2002.

Ingold, Tim; Evolution and Social Life, New York: Routledge, 2016.

Jensen, John Vernon; Thomas Henry Huxley: Communicating for Science, Newark: Univer- sity of Delaware Press, 1991.

Jones, Colin; Josephine McDonagh ve Jon Mee, “Introduction: A Tale of Two Cities in Con- text”, Colin Jones, Josephine McDonagh ve Jon Mee, Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities and the French Revolution içinde (ss. 1-23), New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.

Jongerden, Joost; “First the Peasant? Some Reflections on Modernity, Technology and Re- construction”, Guido Ruivenkamp, Shuji Hisano ve Joost Jongerden, Reconstructing Bi- otechnologies: Critical Social Analyses içinde (ss. 119-142), Wageningen: Wageningen Academic Publishers, 2008.

Kaye, Howard L.; The Social Meaning of Modern Biology: From Social Darwinism to Socio- biology, New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 2009.

Kellner, Douglas; “New Technologies and Alienation”, Lauren Langman ve Devorah Kale- kin-Fishman, The Evolution of Alienation içinde (ss. 47-68), Oxford: Rowman & Little- field Publishers, 2006.

Kelly, Alfred; The Descent of Darwin: The Popularization of Darwinism in Germany, 1860– 1914, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1981.

Kucich, John; “Scientific Ascendancy”, Patrick Brantlinger ve William B. Thesing, A Compa- nion to the Victorian Novel içinde (ss. 119-136), Oxford: Blackwell, 2002.

Larsen, Timothy; Crisis of Doubt: Honest Faith in Nineteenth-Century England, Oxford: Ox- ford University Press, 2006.

Levine, George; “Scientific Discourse as an alternative to Faith”, Richard J. Helmstadter ve Bernard V. Lightman, Victorian Faith in Crisis: Essays on Continuity and Change in Nine- teenth-century Religious Belief içinde (ss. 225-261), Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990.

Lewens, Tim; Darwin, Londra: Routledge, 2007.

Lightman, Bernard; “Science and Culture”, Francis O’Gorman, The Cambridge Companion to Victorian Culture içinde (ss. 12-42), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010

Lightman, Bernard; Victorian Popularizers of Science, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2007.

Mitchell, Sally; Daily Life in Victorian England, Londra: Greenwood Press, 1996.

Moore, Grace; The Victorian Novel in Context, Londra: Continuum, 2012.

Nasr, Seyyed Hossein; Knowledge and the Sacred, Albany: State University of New York, 1989.

Oulton, Carolyn W.; Literature and Religion in Mid-Victorian England: From Dickens to Eli- ot, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.

Paul, Diane B.; “Darwin, Social Darwinism and Eugenics”, M. J. S. Hodge ve Gregory Radi- ck, The Cambridge Companion to Darwin içinde (ss. 219-245), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.

Radick, Gregory; “Did Darwin Change his Mind about the Fuegians?”, Endeavour, 34, 2, 2010.

Radick, Gregory; “Is the Theory of Natural Selection Independent of its History?”, M. J. S. Hodge ve Gregory Radick, The Cambridge Companion to Darwin içinde (ss. 143-167), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.

Schnädelbach, Herbert; Philosophy in Germany, 1831-1933, Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- sity Press, 1984.

Secord, James A.; Victorian Sensation: The Extraordinary Publication, Reception, and Secret Authorship of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000.

Shapin, Steven; “Science and the Modern World”, Edward Hackett, Olga Amsterdamska, Mi- chael Lynch ve Judy Wajcman, The Handbook of Science and Technology Studies içinde (ss. 433-448), Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2007.

Sklair, Leslie; The Sociology of Progress, New York: Routledge, 2001.

Stenmark, Mikael; “Contemporary Darwinism and Religion”, Abigail Lustig, Robert J. Ric- hards ve Michael Ruse, Darwinian Heresies içinde (ss. 173-191), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.

Strickberger, Monroe W.; Evolution, Boston: Jones and Barlett, 2000.

Thom, Gary; The Human Nature of Social Discontent: Alienation, Anomie, Ambivalence, New Jersey: Rowman & Allanheld, 1984.

Turner, Frank M.; “The Victorian Conflict between Science and Religion: A Professional Di- mension”, Isis, 69, 248, 1978.

Turner, Frank M; “The Victorian Crisis of Faith and the Faith that was Lost”, Richard J. Helmstadter ve Bernard V. Lightman, Victorian Faith in Crisis: Essays on Continuity and Change in Nineteenth-century Religious Belief içinde (ss. 9-38), Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990.

Vanke, Francesca; “Degrees of Otherness: The Ottoman Empire and China at the Great Ex- hibition of 1851” Jeffrey A. Auerbach ve Peter H. Hoffenberg, Britain, the Empire, and the World at the Great Exhibition of 1851 içinde (ss. 191-206), Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008.

Volti, Rudi; An Introduction to the Sociology of Work and Occupations, Los Angeles: Sage, 2012.

Waal, Frans B. M. De; “Morality and Its Relation to Primate Social Instincts”, Henrik Hogh-O- lesen, Human Morality and Sociality: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives içinde (ss. 31-57), New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2010.

Wallace, Alfred Russel; Natural Selection, Londra: Macmillan, 1871.