Uluslararası Turizm Harcamalarının Sosyal, Kültürel ve Ekonomik Açıdan İncelenmesi

Dünyadaki turizm hareketine katılan insan sayısının artmasıyla birlikte, turistler dünyanın çeşitli yerlerine seyahat etmekte, kültürel ve sosyal etkileşime girmektedir. Bu açıdan turizm, ülkeler arasındaki ekonomik dengesizliklerin azaltılmasında ve gelişmekte olan bölgelerin kalkınmasında da önemli bir role sahiptir. Bu çalışmanın amacı, Dünya’da en fazla uluslararası turizm harcaması yapan ülkelerin ve Türkiye’nin bazı ekonomik, sosyal ve kültürel göstergeleri ile turizm harcamaları arasındaki ilişkiyi incelemektir. Çalışmada, nitel araştırma yönteminden yararlanılmıştır. T.C. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, Dünya Bankası, Ekonomik İşbirliği ve Kalkınma Örgütü (OECD), Birleşmiş Milletler Dünya Turizm Örgütü (UNWTO), Dünya Seyahat ve Turizm Konseyi (WTTC), Dünya Ekonomik Forumu gibi resmi ve küresel kuruluşların istatistikleri kullanılarak ikincil veri analizi yapılmıştır. Araştırma, ülkelerin son on bir yıllık (2009 -2019) verileri kullanılarak yapılmıştır. Araştırma bulguları, en fazla uluslararası turizm harc aması yapan ülkeler ve Türkiye arasında seyahat ve turizm rekabet göstergeleri, eğitim kazanımları, çalışma süreleri, işsizlik oranları, enflasyon gibi sosyal ve ekonomik göstergeler açısından farklılıkları ortaya koymaktadır.

Social, Cultural and Economic Examination of International Tourism Expenditures

With the increasing number of people participating in the tourism movement in the world, tourists travel to various parts of the world and engage in cultural and social interaction. From this point, tourism has also an important role in reducing economic imbalances among countries and in the development of emerging regions. The aim of the study is to examine whether there is a relationship between international tourism expenditure and the economic, social and cultural figures of the World’s top tourism spenders and Turkey. Qualitative research method was used in the research. Secondary data analysis was carried out by using the statistics of official and global organizations such as Rep. of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism, The World Bank, The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC), World Economic Forum. The research was carried out using the data of the last eleven years (2009-2019) of the countries. Acc ording to the findings, there are differences between Turkey and top tourism spenders regarding some travel and tourism competitiveness pillars and social and economic indicators such as educational attainment, working times, unemployment rates, inflation.

PDF

___

Abbruzzo, A., Brida, J. G. and Scuderi, R. (2014). Determinants of Individual Tourist Expenditure as a Network: Empirical Findings from Uruguay, Tourism Management,43: 36-45.
Agarwal, V. B. and Yochum, G. R. (1999). Tourist Spending and Race of Visitors, Journal of Travel Research,38(2):173-176.
Aguilar, M. I., and Diaz, B. (2019). Length of Stay of International Tourists in Spain: A Parametric Survival Analysis, Annals of Tourism Research,79: 1-14.
Aguilo, E., Rossello, J. and Vila, M. (2017). Length of Stay and Daily Tourist Expenditure: AJoint Analysis, Tourism Management Perspectives,21:10-17.
Alegre, J., Mateo, S. and Pou, L. (2013). Tourism Participation and Expenditure by Spanish Households: The Effects ofThe Economic Crisis and Unemployment, Tourism Management,39: 37-49.
Altunışık, R., Coşkun, R., Bayraktaroğlu, S. ve Yıldırım, E. (2010). Sosyal Bilimlerde Araştırma Yöntemleri SPSS Uygulamalı.Sakarya: Sakarya Yayıncılık.
Asgary, N., Santos, G., Vincent, V. and Davila, V. (1997). The Determinants of Expenditures by Mexican Visitors to the Border Cities of Texas, Tourism Economics,3(4): 319-328.
Bernini, C. and Cracolici, M. F. (2015). Demographic Change, Tourism Expenditure and Life Cycle Behaviour, Tourism Management,47: 191-205.
Brida, J. G. and Scuderi, R. (2013). Determinants of Tourist Expenditure: A Review of Micro Econometric Models, Tourism Management Perspectives,6: 28-40.
Cannon, T. F. and Ford, J. (2002). Relationship of Demographic and Trip Characteristics to Visitor Spending: AnAnalysis of Sports Travel Visitors across Time, Tourism Economics,8(3): 263-271.
Chhabra, D., Sills, E. and Rea, P. (2002). Tourist Expenditures at Heritage Festivals, Event Management,7(4): 221-230.
D’urso, P., Disegna, M. and Massari, R. (2020). Satisfaction and Tourism Expenditure Behavior, Social Indicators Research,147(1): 1-26.
Downward, P. and Lumsdon, L. (2003). The Demand for Day-Visits: An Analysis of Visitor Spending, Tourism Economics,6(3): 251-261.
Downward, P. and Lumsdon, L. (2004) Tourism Transport and Visitor Spending: AStudy in the North York Moors National Park, UK, Journal of Travel Research,42(4):415-420.
EBSO (Ege Bölgesi Sanayi Odası). (2020). 2019 Yılında Dünya ve Türkiye Ekonomisi & 2020 Yılından Beklentiler. [Online] http://www.ebso.org.tr/ebsomedia/documents/2019-yilinda-dunya-ve-turkiye-ekonomisi-&-2020-yilindan-beklentiler-_69645550.pdf> [Erişim Tarihi: 01.04.2020].
Eugenio-Martin, J. L. and Campos-Soria, J. A. (2011). Income and The Substitution Pattern Between Domestic and International Tourism Demand, Applied Economics,43(20):2519-2531.
Eugenio-Martin, J. L. and Campos-Soria, J. A. (2014). Economic Crisis and Tourism Expenditure Cutback Decision, Annals of Tourism Research,44: 53-73.
Eugenio-Martin, J. L. and Inchausti-Sintes, F. (2016). Low-Cost Travel and Tourism Expenditures, Annals of Tourism Research,57: 140-159.
Fredman, P. (2008). Determinants of Visitor Expenditures in Mountain Tourism, Tourism Economics,14(2):297-311.
Gholipour, H. F. and Tajaddini, R. (2014). Cultural Dimensions and Outbound Tourism, Annals of Tourism Research, 49:203-205.
Gholipour, H. F., Tajaddini, R. and Al-mulali, U. (2014). Does Personal Freedom Influence Outbound Tourism?, Tourism Management,41: 19-25.
Gomez-Deniz, E. and Perez-Rodriguez, J. V. (2018). Modelling Distribution of Aggregate Expenditure on Tourism, Economic Modelling,78: 293-308.
Hong, G. S., Morrison, A. M. and Cai, L. A. (1996). Household Expenditure Patterns for Tourism Products and Service, Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing,4(4):15-40.
http://www.export.gov/hongkong/eg_hk_048866.asp> [Erişim Tarihi: 03.04.2020].
http://www.kto.visitkorea.or.kr/eng/tourismStatics/keyFacts/KoreaMonthlyStatistics/eng/inout/inout.kto> [Erişim Tarihi: 07.04.2020].
http://www.russtd.com/official-data.-statistics-of-the-departure-of-russians-abroad-in-2019.
html> [Erişim Tarihi: 05.04.2020].http://www.tradingeconomics.com/analytics/indicators.aspx> [Erişim Tarihi: 03.04.2020]
.http://www.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TheGlobalCompetitivenessReport2019.pdf> [Erişim Tarihi: 03.03.2020].
http://www.worldometers.info> [Erişim Tarihi: 03.04.2020].
https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicators> [Erişim Tarihi: 03.04.2020].
https://www.data.worldbank.org/indicator> [Erişim Tarihi: 10.03.2020].
https://www.destinationnsw.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/tourism-research-australia-tourism-forecast-report-2019.pdf> [Erişim Tarihi: 03.04.2020].
https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/travel-and-tourism-in-france-to-2019-300164182.html> [Erişim Tarihi: 07.04.2020].
https://www.statista.com/topics/3826/outbound-tourism-in-european-countries> [Erişim Tarihi: 03.04.2020].
https://www.store.globaldata.com/report/tt0127mi--tourism-source-market-insights-france-analysisof-tourist-profile-traveler-flows-spending-patterns-main-destination-markets-and-risks-and-opportunities> [Erişim Tarihi: 03.04.2020].
https://www.unwto.org/international-tourism-growth-continues-to-outpace-the-economy> [Erişim Tarihi: 10.03.2019].
https://www.ustravel.org/research/us-travel-outlook> [Erişim Tarihi: 05.04.2020].
https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/190723/dq190723a-eng.htm> [Erişim Tarihi: 07.04.2020].
Hung,W. T., Shang, J. K. and Wang, F. C. (2012). Another Look at The Determinants of Tourism Expenditure, Annals of Tourism Research,39(1): 495-498.
Jang. S., Bai, B., Hong, G. S., O’Leary, J. T. (2004). Understanding Travel Expenditure Patterns: A Study of Japanese Pleasure Travelers to The United States by Income Level, Tourism Management, 25:331-341.
Kim, S. S. and Prideaux, B. (2005). Marketing Implications Arising from a Comparative Study of International Pleasure Tourist Motivations and Other Travel-Related Characteristics of Visitors to Korea, Tourism Management,26(3):347-357.
Kim, S. S., Han, H. and Chon, K. (2008). Estimation of the Determinants of Expenditures by Festival Visitors, Tourism Analysis, 13(4):387-401.
Konstantakis, K. N., Soklis, G. and Michaelides, P. G. (2017). Tourism Expenditures and Crisis Transmission: AGeneral Equilibrium Gvar Analysis with Network Theory, Annals of Tourism Research,66:74-94.
Kozak, M., Gokovali, U. and Bahar, O. (2008). Estimating the Determinants of Tourist Spending: AComparison of Four Models, Tourism Analysis,13(2):143-156.
Larsen, S. and Wolff, K. (2019). In Defenseof The Domestic Tourist a Comparison of Domestic and International Tourists’ Revisit-Intentions, Word-of-Mouth Propensity, Satisfaction and Expenditures, Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism,19(4-5): 422-428.
Lin, V. S., Mao, R. and Song, H. (2015). Tourism Expenditure Patterns in China, Annals ofTourism Research,54: 100-117.
Mak, J., Moncur, J. and Yonamine, D. (1977). How or How Not to Measure Visitor Expenditures, Journal of Travel Research,16(1):1-4.
Marcussen, C. (2011). Determinants of Tourist Spending in Cross SectionalStudies and at Danish Destinations, Tourism Economics,17(4):833-855.
Marrocu, E., Paci, R. and Zara, A. (2015). Micro Economic Determinants of Tourist Expenditure:A Quantile Regression Approach, Tourism Management,50: 13-30.
Mehran, J. and Olya, H. G. T. (2018). Progress on Outbound Tourism Expenditure Research: AReview, Current Issues in Tourism,22(20): 2511-2537.
Mihalic, T. (2002). Tourism and Economic Development Issues, (Editor) Sharpley, R. and D. Telfer, D.: Include Tourism and Development: Concepts and Issues (pp.81-111) Clevedon, UK: Channel View Publications.
Mok, C. and Iverson, T. J. (2000). Expenditure-Based Segmentation: Taiwanese Tourists to Guam, Tourism Management,21(3):299-305.
Nunes Valença, M., de Souza Melo, A., Falcao Sobral, M. F. and Pinto Xavier, M. G. (2015). Relationship Between theExchange Rate and The Tourism Sector: Analysis by Vector Autoregression, Revista Turismo,17(3):737-757.
Olya, H. G. T. and Mehran, J. (2017). Modelling Tourism Expenditure Using Complexity Theory, Journal of Business Research,75: 147-158.
Perez, E. A. andJuaneda, S. C. (2000). Tourist Expenditure for Mass Tourism Markets, Annals of Tourism Research,27(3): 624-637.
Perez-Rodriguez, J. V. and Ledesma-Rodriguez, F. (2019). Unconditional Quantile Regression and Tourism Expenditure: The Case of the Canary Islands, Tourism Economics,25(8): 1-23.
Qiang, M., Shen, M. and Xie, H. (2019). Loss of Tourism Revenue Inducedby Coastal Environmental Pollution: A Length-of-Stay Perspective, Journal of Sustainable Tourism,28(4): 550-567.
Rahman, N., Ng, S. H., Ramachandran, S., Wang, D. D., Sridharan, S., Tan, C. S., Khoo, A. and Tan, X. Q. (2019). Drivers of Hospital Expenditure and Length of Stay inan Academic Medical Centre: A Retrospective Cross-Sectional Study, BMC Health Services Research,19(442): 1-16.
Rossello-Nadal, J. and He, J. (2019). Tourist Arrivals Versus Tourist Expenditures in Modelling Tourism Demand, Tourism Demand-Emerging Theoretical and Empirical Issues,Special Issue: 1-16.
Rudkin, S. and Sharma, A. (2019). Live footballand Tourism Expenditure: Match Attendance Effects in the UK, European Sport Management Quarterly,20: 1-25.
Silik, C. E. ve Ünlüönen, K. (2018). Hizmet Kalitesi, Müşteri Memnuniyeti ve Tavsiye Etme Niyeti Arasındaki İlişki: Kayak Merkezlerine YönelikBir İnceleme, İşletme Araştırmaları Dergisi,10(4): 333-357.
Taylor, D. T., Fletcher, R. R. and Clabaugh, T. (1993). A Comparison of Characteristics, Regional Expenditures, and Economic Impact of Visitors to Historical Sites with Other Recreational Visitors, Journal of Travel Research,32(1):30-35.
Thrane, C. (2002). Jazz Festival Visitors and Their Expenditures: Linking Spending Patterns to Musical Interest, Journal of Travel Research,40(3): 281-286.
Thrane, C. (2015). Students’ Summer Tourism: An Econometric Analysis of Trip Costs and Trip Expenditures, Tourism Management Perspectives,15: 65-71.
Thrane, C. and Farstad, E. (2011). Domestic Tourism Expenditures: The Non-Linear Effects of Length of Stay and Travel Party Size, Tourism Management,32:46-52.
Thrane, C. and Farstad, E. (2012). Nationality as a Segmentation Criterion in Tourism Research: The Case of International Tourists’ Expenditures While on Trips in Norway, Tourism Economics,18(1):203-217.
UNWTO (Birleşmiş Milletler Dünya Turizm Örgütü) (2020). World Tourism Barometer. [Online] https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/pdf/10.18111/wtobarometereng.2020.18.1.1, [Erişim Tarihi: 02.04.2020].
Vietze, C. (2011). What’s Pushing International Tourism Expenditures?, Tourism Economics,17(2):237-260.
Wang, Y. and Davidson, M. C. (2010). A Review of Micro Analyses of Tourist Expenditure, Current Issues in Tourism,13(6): 507-524.
Wang, Y. S. (2014). Effects of Budgetary Constraints on International Tourism Expenditures, Tourism Management, 41: 9-18.
Wang, Y., Rompf, P., Severt, D. and Peerapatdit, N. (2006). Examining and Identifying the Determinants of TravelExpenditure Patterns,International Journal of Tourism Research,8(5):333-347.
Wanke, P., Figueiredo, O. H. S. and Antunes, J. J. M. (2019). Unveiling Endogeneity and Temporal Dependence Between Tourism Revenues/Expenditures and Macroeconomic Variables inBrazil: AStochastic Hidden Markov Model Approach, Tourism Economics,25(1):3-21.
Wei, X., Huang, S., Yap, G., Wu, X. and Taivan, A. (2018). The Influence of National Holiday Structure on DomesticTourism Expenditure: Evidence from China, Tourism Economics,24(7):781-800.
Witt,S. F.and Witt,C. A.(1995). Forecasting Tourism Demand: A Review of Empirical Research, International Journal of Forecasting,11(3): 447-475.