Parasosyal İli̇şki̇: Kavramsal Bi̇r Çerçeve

Bu çalışmada, izleyicilerin medya karakterleriyle kurduğu tek yanlı ve hayali ilişkiyi ifade eden parasosyal ilişkinin kavramsal bir çerçevesinin çizilmesi amaçlanmıştır. Bu doğrultuda, ortaya çıkmasında etkili faktörler, özellikleri, türleri, gelişim süreci ve izleyici üzerindeki etkileri tartışılmıştır. Yapılan alanyazın taraması sonucunda, parasosyal ilişkinin kitle iletişim aracının, programın, medya karakterinin ve izleyicinin özelliklerine bağlı olarak geliştiği, farklı yaş, cinsiyet ve eğitim kategorilerinde farklı parasosyal ilişki kalıplarının görüldüğü tespit edilmiştir. Çalışmanın vardığı sonuçlardan biri de yalnızlık, reddedilme korkusu, bağlanma kaygısı, aidiyet ihtiyacı gibi psikolojik faktörlerin ve bilişsel empati kurabilme gibi bilişsel faktörlerin de parasosyal ilişkinin gelişimini etkilediğidir. Parasosyal ilişkinin tek yanlı ve hayali bir ilişki olduğu, ünlü kişilerle kurulduğu ve gerçek hayattaki ilişkilere benzerlik gösterdiği, bilişsel, duygusal ve davranışsal süreçler içinde geliştiği, aşk, arkadaşlık, idolleştirme, aile odaklılık, duygudaşlık, sosyal deneyim yaşama gibi türlerinin bulunduğu ve medyanın izleyici üzerindeki etkilerini kolaylaştırdığı da çalışmanın ulaştığı sonuçlar arasındadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler:

Parasosyal İlişki, Parasosyal Etkileşim, İzleyici, Medya Karakteri.

Parasocial Relationship: A Conceptual Framework

The purpose of this paper is to provide a conceptual framework on “parasocial relationship” (PSR) which refers to a one-sided and imaginary relationship developed between audience and media personas. For this purpose, the factors leading to the development of PSR, and its features, types, development process and audience effects are discussed. The literature review conducted has revealed that the development of PSR varies with the characteristics of medium, genre, media persona and audience, that different PSR patterns may be experienced by people of different age, gender and education level, and that psychological factors such as loneliness, fear of rejection, attachment anxiety and need-to-belong, and cognitive factors like cognitive empathy also affect the development of PSR. Other findings of the paper include that the characteristics of PSR include, without limitation, that it is developed with famous people, and its similarity with ortho-social relationships, besides its one-sidedness and imaginariness, that PSR develops in cognitive, affective and behavioural processes and has various types such as love, friendship, idolisation, family oriented, sympathetic and engagement in social experience, and that PSR facilitates media effects on audience.

Keywords:

Parasocial Relationship, Parasocial Interaction, Audience, Media Character.,

PDF

___

Adam, A. ve Sizemore, B. (2013). Parasocial Romance: A Social Exchange Perspective. Interpersona: An International Journal on Personal Relationships, 7(1), 12- 25.
Alperstein, N. (1991). Imaginary Social Relationships with Celebrities Appearing in Television Commercials. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 35, 43-58.
Arda S. (2006). Predictors of Parasocial Interaction with the Favourite and the Least Desirable Characters Portrayed in TV serials, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Orta Doğu Teknik Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara.
Bandura, A. (2006). Analysis of Modeling Processes. Bandura, A. (Der.). Psychological Modeling: Conflicting Theories. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1-62.
Basil, M. D. (1996). Identification as a Mediator of Celebrity Effects. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 40, 478–495.
BBC News. (2008, March 14). Celebrity Culture ‘Harms Pupils.’, Erişim Tarihi: 2018, http://new.bbc.co.Uk/l/hi/education/7296306.stm
Boon, S. D. ve Lomore, C. D. (2001). Admirer-Celebrity Relationships among Young Adults: Explaining Perceptions of Celebrity Influence on Identity. Human Communication Research, 27(3), 432-465. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2958.2001.tb00788.x
Branch, S. E., Wilson, K. M. ve Agnew, C. R. (2013).Committed to Oprah, Homer, or House: Using the Investment Model to Understand Parasocial Relationships. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 2(2), 96-109.
Brown, W.J. (2015) Examining Four Processes of Audience Involvement With Media Personae: Transportation, Parasocial Interaction, Identification, and Worship. Communication Theory, 25(3), 259-283.
Cathcart, R. ve G. Gumpert (1983) Mediated Interpersonal Communication: Toward a New Typology. G. Gumpert ve R. Cathcart (Der.) Inter/Media. Interpersonal Communication in a Media World. New York: Oxford University Press.
Chory-Assad, R. M. ve Yanen, A. (2005). Hopelessness and Loneliness as Predictors of Older Adults’ Involvement with Favorite Television Performers. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 49(2), 182-201.
Claessens, N. ve Van den Bulck, H. (2015). Parasocial Relationships with Audiences Favorite Celebrities: The Role of Audience and Celebrity Characteristics in a Representative Flemish Sample. Communications-European Journal of Communication Research, 40(1), 43-65.
Cohen, J. (1997). Parasocial Relations and Romantic Attraction: Gender and Dating Status Differences. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 41(4), 516-529.
Cohen, J. (2001). Defining identification: A Theoretical Look at the Identification of Audiences with Media Characters. Mass Communication & Society, 4(3), 245–264.
Cohen, J. (2003). Parasocial Breakups: Measuring Individual Differences in Responses to the Dissolution of Parasocial Relationships. Mass Communication and Society, 6, 191-202.
Cohen, J. (2004). Parasocial Breakup from Favorite Television Characters: The Role of Attachment Styles and Relationship Intensity. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 21, 187- 202.
Cole, T. ve Leets, L. (1999). Attachment styles and intimate television viewing: Insecurely forming relationships in a parasocial way. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 16(4), 495–511.
Derrick, J. L., Gabriel, S. ve Tippin, B. (2008). Parasocial Relationships and Selfdiscrepancies: Faux Relationships have Benefits for Low Self-esteem Individuals.Personal Relationships, 15(2), 261-280.
Dibble, J. L., Hartmann, T. ve Rosaen, S. (2016). Parasocial Interaction and Parasocial Relationship: Conceptual Clarification and a Critical Assessment of Measures. Human Communication Research, 42(1), 21-44.
Escalas, J. E. ve Bettman, J. R. (2017).Connecting With Celebrities: How Consumers Appropriate Celebrity Meanings for a Sense of Belonging. Journal of Advertising, 46(2), 297-308.
Eyal, K. ve Rubin, A. M. (2003) Viewer Aggression and Homophily, Identification, and Parasocial Relationships With Television Characters, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 47(1), 77-98.
Eyal, K. ve Cohen, J. (2006). When Good Friends Say goodbye: A Parasocial Breakup Study. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 50(3), 502-523.
Eyal, K. ve Dailey, R. M. (2012). Examining Relational Maintenance in Parasocial Relationships. Mass Communication and Society, 15(5), 758-781.
Giles, D. (2002). Parasocial Interaction: A Review of the Literature and a Model for Future Research. Media Psychology, 4(3), 279–305.
Gleich, U. (1997). Parasocial Interaction with People on the Screen. P. WinterhoffSpurk ve T.H.A. Van der Voort (Der.), New Horizons in Media Psychology: Research Co-operation and Projects in Europe. Opladen, Germany: Westdeutscher Verlag, 35–55.
Greenwood, D. N. ve Long, C. R. (2009). Psychological Predictors of Media Involvement: Solitude Experiences and the Need to Belong. Communication Research, 36(5): 637-654.
Greenwood, D. N. ve Long, C. R. (2011). Attachment, Belongingness Needs, and Relationship Status Predict Imagined Intimacy with Media Figures. Communication Research, 38(2), 278–297.
Hartmann, T. ve Goldhoorn, C. (2011). Horton and Wohl Revisited: Exploring Viewers’ Experience of Parasocial Interaction. Journal of Communication, 61, 1104- 1121.
Horton R. ve Wohl, R. (1956), “Mass Communication and Para-social Interaction: Observation on Intimacy at a Distance”, Psychiatry, 19(3), 188-211.
Hu, M. (2016). The Influence of a Scandal on Parasocial Relationship, Parasocial Interaction, and Parasocial Breakup. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 5(3), 217-231.
Jennings, N. A. ve Alper, M. (2016). Young Children’s Positive and Negative Parasocial Relationships with Media Characters. Communication Research Reports, 33(2), 96-102
Kelly, S., Johnson, K. Broaddus, M. ve Fall, L. (2013). Immediacy as an Induction of parasocial relationships. International Society for Presence Research.
Klimmt, C., Hartmann, T. ve Schramm, H. (2011). Parasocial Interactions and Relationships. J. Bryant ve P. Vorderer (Der.). Psychology of Entertainment. Mahwah:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 291-314.
Lather, J. ve Moyer-Guse, E. (2011). How Do We React When Our Favorite Characters Are Taken Away? An Examination of a Temporary Parasocial Breakup. Mass Communication And Society, 14(2), 196-215.
Madison, T. P. ve Porter, L. V. (2015). The People We Meet: Discriminating Functions of Parasocial Interactions. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 35(1), 47–71.
Maltby, J., Giles, D. C., Barber, L. ve McCutcheon, L. E. (2005). Intense-personal Celebrity Worship and Body Image: Evidence of a Link among Female Adolescents. British Journal of Health Psychology, 10(1): 17–32.
Moyer-Gusé, E. (2008). Toward a Theory of Entertainment Persuasion: Explaining the Persuasive Effects of Entertainment-Education Messages. Communication Theory, 18(3), 407-425.
Mutz, D. C. ve Goldman, S. K. (2010). Mass Media. J. F. Dovidio, M. Hewstone, Glick, P. ve V. M. Esses (Der.), The Sage Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 241-258.
Pinsky, D. ve Young, M. (2009). The Mirror Effect: How Celebrity Narcissism is Seducing America. New York: Harper Collins Publishers.
Rubin, A. M., Perse, E. M. ve Powell, R. A. (1985). Loneliness, parasocial interaction, and local television news viewing. Human Communication Research, 12, 155-180.
Rubin, A. M. ve Perse, E. M. (1987). Audience Activity and Soap Opera Involvement: A Uses and Effects Investigation. Human Communication Research, 14(2), 246 –268.
Rubin, R. B. ve McHugh, M. (1987). Development of Parasocial Interaction Relationships. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 31(3), 279–292.
Sanderson, J. (2009). “You are All Loved so much”: Exploring Relational Maintenance within the Context of Parasocial Relationships. Journal of Media Psychology: Theories, Methods, and Applications, 21(4), 171-182.
Schiappa, E., Allen, M. ve Gregg B. P. (2007). Parasocial Relations and Television: A Meta-analysis of the Effects. Mass Media Effects Research: Advances through MetaAnalysis (Der.) Gayle M. B., Burrell N., Allen M. ve Bryant J. London; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, 301-314.
Schiappa, E., Gregg, P. B. ve Hewes, D. E. (2005). The Parasocial Contact Hypothesis. Communication Monographs, 72(1), 92–115.
Schmid, H. ve Klimmt, C. (2011). A Magically Nice Guy: Parasocial Relationships with Harry Potter across Different Cultures. International Communication Gazette, 73(3), 253-270.
Schramm, H. (2008). Parasocial Interactions and Relationships. Wolfgang Donsbach (Der.), The Blackwell International Encyclopedia of Communication. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 3501-3506.
Sood, S. ve Rogers, E. M. (2000). Dimensions of Parasocial Interaction by Letter Writers to A Popular Entertainment-Education Soap Opera in India. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 44(3), 386–414.
Stever, G. S. (2009). Parasocial and Social Interaction with Celebrities: Classification of Media Fans. Journal of Media Psychology, 14(3): 1-39.
Stever, G. S. (2013). Mediated vs. Parasocial Relationships: An Attachment Perspective. Journal of Media Psychology, 17(3), 1–31.
Tian, Q. ve Hoffner, C. (2010). Parasocial Interaction with Liked, Neutral, and Disliked Characters on a Popular TV Series. Mass Communication and Society, 13(3), 250- 269.
Tindi, S. (2015). Adolescents and Parasocial Interaction with Local Entertainment Celebrities, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, University of Education, Winneba.
Tsao, J. (1996). Compensatory Media Use: An Exploration of Two Paradigms. Communication Studies, 47, 89–109.
Tsay-Vogel, M. ve Schwartz, M. L. (2014).Theorizing Parasocial Interactions Based on Authenticity: The Development of a Media Figure Classification Scheme. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 3(2), 66-78.
Tsiotsou, R. H. (2015). The Role of Social and Parasocial Relationships on Social Networking Sites Loyalty. Computers in Human Behavior, 48, 401-414.
Tukachinsky, R. H. (2011). Para-romantic Love and Para-friendships: Development and Assessment of a Multiple-Parasocial Relationships Scale. American Journal of Media Psychology, 3(1/2), 73-94.
Tukachinksy, R. (2015). When Actors don’t Walk the Talk: Parasocial Relationships Moderate the Effect of Actor-Character Incongruence.” International Journal of Communication, 9, 3394–3410.
Vonderohe, B. M. (2016). Twitter’s Role in the Disclosure of Parasocial Relationships. UW-L Journal of Undergraduate Research, Erişim Tarihi: 01.09.2018, https://www.uwlax.edu/urc/jur-online/PDF/2016/Vonderohe.Brandon.CST.pdf
Ward, J. (2016). A Content Analysis of Celebrity Instagram Posts and Parasocial Interaction. Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications, 7(1), 44-51.