Veteriner Hekimliği Tarihi Yönünden Hayvan Mumyaları

Ölümden sonra ikinci bir hayatın başlayacağına inanan Mısırlılar, öteki yaşamda var olabilmek içinölümden önceki bedenlerine ihtiyaç duyacaklarını düşünmüşlerdir. Bu nedenle, ölen kişilerinbedenlerini, dış etkilerden korumak ve bozulmasını önlemek için bir takım kimyasallar kullanarakmumyalamışlardır. Aynı işlemi öteki yaşamda birlikte olmak istedikleri hayvanlarına dauygulamışlardır. Hayvan mumyaları, mumyalanma amaçlarına göre dört ayrı kategoride incelenmektedir. Bunlar;tanrının dünyadaki temsilcisi olduğu düşünülen kutsal hayvan mumyaları, sahiplerinin isteğiyleölümden sonra da varlıklarının devam etmesi amacıyla mumyalanan evcil hayvan mumyaları, ölenkişilerin tüketebilmeleri için yiyecek olarak mumyalanan erzak hayvan mumyaları ve tanrıyabağışlandığında, insanlar ile tanrılar arasında aracı olacaklarına inanılan adak hayvanmumyalarıdır. Mumyalar üzerinde yapılan incelemelerde, hayvan mumyalarında, paraziter hastalıklara ilişkinbulgulara, bakteriyel hastalık bulgularına kıyasla daha fazla rastlanılmıştır. Bu hastalıklardanönemli kısmı zoonotik karakterli hastalıklardır. Ayrıca mumyalanan hayvanlar üzerinde yapılancerrahi girişimlerin fazlalığı da dikkat çekicidir. Hayvanlara uygulanan bu sağaltıcı girişimlerincelendiğinde, müdahaleyi yapan kişilerin, veteriner hekimliği hizmetleri alanında uzmanlaşmışkişiler olduğu şeklinde yorumlanmıştır.Dünya çapında müze koleksiyonlarında tutulan hayvan mumyalarına ve mumyalarla ilgili bilgilere(elde edilme şekilleri, coğrafik kökenleri, tarihleri, fotoğrafları), çevrimiçi bir veri tabanı olan Antik Mısır Hayvan Biyo Bankası (Ancient Egyptian Animal Bio Bank) aracılığıyla ulaşılabilmektedir. Antik Mısır’da, insanlara uygulanan mumyalama yönteminin benzer şekilde hayvanlara dauygulanmış olması, insanlar ve hayvanlar arasında dini inançlardan beslenen güçlü bir bağın veyakın ilişkinin varlığına işaret etmektedir. Mumyalama tekniklerinin hayvanlar arasında farklılıkgöstermesi, hayvanlara yönelik tutum ve davranışların onlara atfedilen değere göre farklılıklargösterdiği şeklinde yorumlanabilir. Ayrıca insan hayatında önemli bir yer edinen hayvanların,ihtiyaçları ve hastalıklarıyla da ilgilenilmesinin, veteriner hekimliği mesleğinin gelişmesine olumluyönde katkı yaptığı sonucuna varılabilir.

Animal Mummies in Terms of History of Veterinary Medicine

Believing in the presence of a second life after death, the Egyptians thought that they need theirbodies in order to exist in that life. For this reason, they mummified the bodies of the deceasedusing a number of chemicals to protect them from external influences and prevent them fromdeteriorating. They applied the same process to the animals they wanted to be with in the next life. Animal mummies are divided into four different categories according to their mummificationpurposes. These are sacred animal mummies, which were thought to be the representative of thegod in the world, pet mummies, mummified with the requests of their owners to continue theirexistence after death, animal mummies as food for consumption of the deceased and animalmummies dedicated to gods as votive offerings to act as intermediaries between humans andgods. In the examinations made on mummies, findings related to parasitic diseases were found morefrequently in animal mummies compared to bacterial disease findings. Most of these diseases arezoonotic diseases. In addition, the excess of surgical interventions on mummified animals isstriking. When these therapeutic interventions applied to animals were examined, it was interpretedthat the people who carried out the intervention were experts in the field of veterinary medicine. Animal mummies held in museum collections around the world and information about mummies(how they were obtained, geographical origins, dates, photographs) are available through theAncient Egyptian Animal Bio Bank, an online database. The fact that the mummification method applied to humans in ancient Egypt was applied to animalsin a similar way indicates the existence of a strong bond and close relationship between humansand animals, nourished by religious beliefs. The fact that mummification techniques differ amonganimals can be interpreted as attitudes and behaviors towards animals differ according to the valueattributed to them. In addition, it can be concluded that taking care of the needs and diseases ofanimals, which have an important place in human life, contributes positively to the development ofthe veterinary profession.

PDF

___

1. Acar E. "Ölümlülük, ölümsüzlük ve yapay zekâ". https://www.altkitap.net/olumluluk-olumsuzluk-ve-yapayzeka/ 26.04.2021.
2. Okka B. Tıp tarihinde mumyalama işlemi, Konyalı Hekim Hacı Paşa ve tahnit. İn: Kuşpınar B (Editör). Uluslararası İslam Medeniyetinde Zaman Sempozyumu, 2015: 75-88.
3. İkram S. Mummies and mummification. İn: Bagnall, RS. Brodersen K. Champion CB (Editors). The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, First Edition, USA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.
4. Aufderheide AC. The Scientific Study of Mummies. First Edition. UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
5. Akbaş G. Mumya sanatı. PİVOLKA, 2012; 21: 12-13.
6. Fagan B. Firavunlar Ülkesi Mısır. First Edition, USA: National Geographic Traveller, 2014.
7. Falke TH, Zweypfenning-Snijders MC, Zweypfenning RC, et al. Computed tomography of an ancient Egyptian cat. Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography, 1987; 11: 745-747.
8. Bierbrier ML. Historical Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. 2nd Edition, USA: Scarecrow Press, 2008.
9. Pettigrew TJ. A History of Egyptian Mummies: And an Account of the Worship and Embalming of the Sacred Animals by the Egyptians. First Edition, London: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
10. İkram S. Animals in ancient Egyptian religion: Belief, identity, power, and economy. In: Albarella U, Rizzetto M, Russ H, et al. (Editors). The Oxford Handbook of Zooarchaeology. First Edition, USA: Oxford University Press, 2017: 452-466.
11. Velde HT. A few remarks upon the religious significance of animals in ancient Egypt. Numen 1980; 27: 76-82.
12. Cardin M. Mummies around the World: An Encyclopedia of Mummies in History, Religion, and Popular Culture. First Edition, California: ABC-CLIO, 2015.
13. Wilcox C. Animal Mummies: Preserved Through the Ages. First Edition, Minnesota: Capstone Press, 2003.
14. İkram, S. Animal Mummies in Ancient Egypt and South America. İn: Bianucci R. Shin DH. (Editors). The Handbook of Mummy Studies: New Frontiers in Scientific and Cultural Perspectives. First Edition. USA: Springer Press, 2020: 1-24.
15. Klys M, Lech T, Zieba-Palus J, et al. A chemical and physicochemical study of an Egyptian mummy ‘Iset Iri Hetes’ from the Ptolemaic period III–I B.C., Forensic Science International 1999; 99: 217-228.
16. İkram S. The loved ones: Egyptian animal mummies as cultural and environmental indicators. In: Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on the Archaeozoology of Southwestern Asia and Adjacent Areas, 2005: 240-248.
17. İkram S. Beloved Beasts: Animal Mummies from Ancient Egypt. First Edition. American Univ in Cairo Press, 2006. 18. Trumble K. Cat Mummies. First Edition. USA: University of Michigan Press, 1996.
19. İnan A. Eski Mısır ve Medeniyeti. 3. Baskı. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 1992.
20. Dodson A. Rituals Related to Animal Cults. In: Wendrich W, Dieleman J, Frood E, et al. (Editors). UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology. First Edition, Los Angeles, 2009.
21. Richardin P, Porcier S, İkram S, et al. Cats, Crocodiles, Cattle, and More: Initial Steps Toward Establishing a Chronology of Ancient Egyptian Animal Mummies. Radiocarbon. 2017; 59: 595–607.
22. Dunand F, Lichtenberg R. Mummies and Death in Egypt. First Edition. USA: Cornell University Press, 2006.
23. Buckley SA, Clark KA, Evershed RP. Complex organic chemical balms of Pharaonic animal mummies. Nature, 2004; 431: 294-299.
24. McKnight LD, Atherton-Woolhman SE, Adams J. Imaging of Ancient Egyptian Animal Mummies. RadioGraphics, 2015; 35: 2108-2120.
25. İkram S. Divine Creature: Animal Mummies in Ancient Egypt. Second Edition. Egypt: The American University in Cairo Press, 2005.
26. Flores DV. The Funerary Sacrifice of Animals during the Predynastic Period. Thesis of Doctor. Canada: University of Toronto, 1999.
27. Kurushima JD, İkram S, Knudsen J, et al. Cats of the pharaohs: genetic comparison of Egyptian cat mummies to their feline contemporaries. Journal of Archaeological Science 2012; 39: 3217-3223.
28. İkram S. The Animal Mummy Project at the Egyptian Museum, Cairo. In: Hawass Z. (Editors). Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-first Century: Language, conservation, museology (Vol. 3). Egypt: American Univ in Cairo Press, 2000.
29. Wilkinson TA. The Nile: Downriver through Egypt's Past and Present. First Edition. USA: Bloomsbury Press, 2014.
30. İkram S. Choice cuts: meat production in ancient Egypt. First Edition. Leuven: Peeters Press, 1995.
31. David R. Egyptian Mummies and Modern Science. First Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
32. Selin H. Encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology, and medicine in non-westen cultures. 2nd Edition. USA: Springer Press, 2013.
33. McKnight L, Bibb R, Mazza R, et al. Appearance and reality in ancient Egyptian votive animal mummies. Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections 2018; 20: 52-57.
34. Morgan L, McGovern-Huffman S, French-Kreigh P. Comparison of two falconid mummies from the late period of ancient Egypt using noninvasive techniques. Journal of Raptor Research 2011; 45: 357-361.
35. Porcier SM, Berruyer C, Pasquali S, et al. Wild crocodiles hunted to make mummies in Roman Egypt: Evidence from synchrotron imaging. Journal of Archaeological Science 2019; 110: 1-8.
36. Woodman N, Wilken AT, İkram S. See how they ran: morphological and functional aspects of skeletons from ancient Egyptian shrew mummies (Eulipotyphla: Soricidae: Crocidurinae). Journal of Mammalogy 201; 100: 1199-1210.
37. Johnston R, Thomas R, Jones R, et al. Evidence of diet, deification, and death within ancient Egyptian mummified animals. Scientific Reports 2020; 10: 1-14.
38. İkram, S. Speculations on the role of animal cults in the economy of Ancient Egypt. Appriv Sauvag Wild CENiM 2015; 11: 211-228.
39. Nicholson P, İkram S, Mills, S. The Catacombs of Anubis at North Saqqara. Antiquity 2015; 89: 645-661.
40. Atherton S, Brothwell D, David R, et al. A healed femoral fracture of Threskiornis aethiopicus (Sacred Ibis) from the Animal Cemetery at Abydos, Egypt. International Journal of Paleopathology 2012; 2: 45-47.
41. Gnudi G, Volta A, Manfredi S, et al. Radiological investigation of an over 2000-year-old Egyptian mummy of a cat. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery 2012; 14: 292-294.
42. McKnight LM, Adams JE, Chamberlain A, et al. Application of clinical imaging and 3D printing to the identification of anomalies in an ancient Egyptian animal mummy. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2015; 3: 328-332.
43. Gaugne R, Porcier S, Nicolas T, et al. A digital introspection of a mummy cat. In: 3rd Digital Heritage International Congress (DigitalHERITAGE) held jointly with 2018 24th International Conference on Virtual Systems & Multimedia, 2018: 1-8.
44. Cosmacini P, Piacentini P. Notes on the history of the radiological study of Egyptian mummies: from X-rays to new imaging techniques. La Radiologia Medica 2008; 113: 615-626.
45. Atherton-Woolham SD, McKnight LM. Post-mortem restorations in ancient Egyptian animal mummies using imaging. Papers on Anthropology 2014; 23: 9-17.
46. Malgora S, Gibelli D, Floridi C, et al. CT examination and 3D analysis of Egyptian animal mummies. La Radiologia Medica 2020; 125: 943-950.
47. Porcier S, İkram S, Pasquali S. Creatures of Earth, Water, and Sky: Essays on Animals in Ancient Egypt and Nubia. First Edition, Leiden, 2019.
48. Jackowski C, Bolliger S, Thali MJ. Common and unexpected findings in mummies from ancient Egypt and South America as revealed by CT. Radiographics 2008; 28: 1477-1492.
49. Atherton-Woolham S, McKnight L, Price C, Adams J. Imaging the gods: animal mummies from Tomb 3508, North Saqqara, Egypt. Antiquity 2019; 93: 128-143.
50. Chhem RK, Brothwell DR. Paleoradiology: Imaging Mummies and Fossils. First Edition, Germany: Springer, 2008.
51. Wendrich W. Egyptian archaeology. First Edition. USA: Wiley-Balckwell Press, 2010.
52. Otranto D, Huchet JB, Giannelli A, et al. The enigma of the dog mummy from Ancient Egypt and the origin of ‘Rhipicephalus sanguineus’. Parasites & Vectors 2014; 7: 1-6.
53. Huchet JB, Callou C, Lichtenberg R. et al. The dog mummy, the ticks and the louse fly: archaeological report of severe ectoparasitosis in Ancient Egypt. International Journal of Paleopathology 2013; 3: 165-175.
54. Dittmar K, Mamat U, Whiting M, et. al. Techniques of DNA-studies on prehispanic ectoparasites (Pulex sp., Pulicidae, Siphonaptera) from animal mummies of the Chiribaya culture, Southern Peru. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 2003; 98: 53-58.
55. Ribbeck R, Daugschies A. Palaeoparasitological analysis of guinea pig mummies of the Chiribaya culture, Moquegua Valley, Peru. Berliner und Munchener Tierarztliche Wochenschrift 2003; 116: 45-49.
56. Araujo A, Reinhard KJ, Ferreira LF. The role of mummy studies in paleoparasitology. Chungará (Arica) 2000; 32: 111-115.
57. Cockburn A, Cockburn E, Reyman TA. Mummies, Disease and Ancient Cultures. 2nd Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
58. Bruschi F, Masetti M, Locci MT, et al. Short report: cysticercosis in an Egyptian mummy of the late Ptolemaic period. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2006; 74: 598-599.
59. Zink AR, Sola C, Reischl U, et. al. Characterization of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex DNAs from Egyptian mummies by spoligotyping. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 2003; 41: 359-367.
60. Nerlich AG, Parsche F, Von Den Driesch A, et al. Osteopathological findings in mummified baboons from ancient Egypt. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 1993; 3: 189-198.
61. Goudsmit J, Brandon-Jones D. Mummies of olive baboons and Barbary macaques in the Baboon Catacomb of the Sacred Animal Necropolis at North Saqqara. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 1999; 85: 45-53.
62. Rowling JT. Pathological changes in mummies. Section of the History of Medicine 1961; 54: 409-415.
63. Armitage PL, Clutton-Brock J. A radiological and histological investigation into the mummification of cats from Ancient Egypt. Journal of Archaeological Science 1981; 8: 185-196.
64. McKnight LD, Atherton-Woolhman SE, Adams J. Imaging of Ancient Egyptian Animal Mummies. RadioGraphics 2015; 35: 2108–2120.
65. Osypinska M, Skibniewski M, Osypinski P. Ancient Pets. The health, diet and diversity of cats, dogs and monkeys from the Red Sea port of Berenice (Egypt) in the 1st-2nd centuries AD. World Archaeology, 2021; 1-15.
66. Smithcors JF. Evolution of the Veterinary Art. A narrative account to 1850. USA: Bailliere, 1958.
67. McKnight LM., Atherton SD, David AR. Introducing the Ancient Egyptian Animal Bio Bank at the KNH Centre for Biomedical Egyptology, University of Manchester. Antiquity 2011; 85: 1-5.
68. T.C. Milli Saraylar İdaresi Başkanlığı. "Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi". https://www.millisaraylar.gov.tr/saraylar/topkapisarayi / 28.10.2021.
69. T.C. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı. "İstanbul Arkeoloji Müzeleri". https://muze.gov.tr/müzeler / 28.10.2021.
70. T.C. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı. "Aksaray Müzesi". https://aksaray.ktb.gov.tr/TR-243000/aksaray-muzesi.html / 20.10.2021.
71. Herodot: Herodot Tarihi. Ökmen M (Çeviren). Üçüncü Baskı. İstanbul: Remzi, 1991.
72. Capriles JM, Santoro CM, George RJ, Bedregal EF, Kennett DJ, Kistler L, Rothhammer F: Pre-Columbian transregional captive rearing of Amazonian parrots in the Atacama Desert. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2021; 118: 1-8.
73. Erk N. Veteriner Tarihi. Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Basımevi, 1966.