EKİM’İN ORTASINDAN MART’IN SONUNA KADAR – ORTAÇAĞ AKDENİZİ’NDEKİ SEYRÜSEFERLER

Bu makale Ortaçağ Akdenizi’nde mevcut bir kış seyrüseferi uygulaması kaydına dayanarak, son elli yıldır bilim adamları ve diğer araştırmacılar tarafından sıklıkla bahsi edilen, Ortaçağ Akdenizi’nde kış seyrüseferinin olmayışı yönündeki genel kanıya antitez oluşturmaktadır. Bu kanı büyük oranda Pisa, Venedik, Ceneviz ve Ankona gibi kentlerin düzenlediği, kış seyrüseferi yasağını aktaran, günümüze kadar ulaşmış yasa metinlerine dayanmaktadır. İlk olarak, 1936’dan 2010’a kadar uzanan, kış seyrüseferinin olmayışı yönündeki yayınlanmış kayıtlar belgelenecek ardından ise 7. yüzyıldan 14. yüzyılın sonuna Akdeniz’de kışın gerçekleştirilen deniz yolculuklarının kısa bir tarihçesi verilecektir. Bu kanuni yasaklama ile mevcut uygulama kaydı arasındaki uçurum öylesine büyüktür ki; bu söz konusu yedi yüzyıllık süreç zarfında, Ekim ortasından Mart ortasına kadarki aylar boyunca balıkçı tekneleri gibi olası istisnalar haricinde, uygulamada Akdeniz’in kapalı olduğu düşüncesinden ziyade; söz konusu yasağın kış seyrüseferi üzerine bir Ortaçağ yasal kurgusu olarak yerleştirilmiş olması düşünülebilir.

Anahtar Kelimeler:

Ortaçağ Akdenizi • Kış Seyrü Seferi • Kapalı Akdeniz • Yasa Kurmaları

FROM MID-OCTOBER TO THE END OF MARCH – VOYAGING IN THE MEDIEVAL MEDITERRANEAN

This article contrasts the common and over the past five decades frequently recorded perception by both scholars and others of the absence of winter voyaging in the Medieval Mediterranean – largely based upon the surviving legal texts recording the prohibition of winter sailing issued by Pisa, Venice, Genoa, Ancona etc. – with the record of the actual practice of winter sailing in the Medieval Mediterranean. This, after providing evidence extending from 1936 to 2010 from the published record of the absence of winter sailing, through providing a brief chronology of recorded winter voyaging in the Mediterranean from the VII. to the end of the 14th c.. The gap between the legal prohibition and the recorded practice is so great that one can regard the legal prohibition placed upon winter sailing as a Medieval legal fiction, rather than there being in practice a closed Mediterranean during the months from mid-October to mid-March during the course of these seven centuries, with the probable exception of fishing boats and fishing fleets.

Keywords:

Medieval Mediterranean • Winter Voyaging • Closed Mediterranean • Legal Fictions,

PDF

___

Anonym. Nom. Rhod. Naut. (= Anonymos, Nomos Rhodion Nautikos) Anonymos, Nόμος Pοδιῶν Nαυτικός: The Rhodian Sea Law. Ed. & Trans.: W. Ashburner. Oxford 1909.
Thuk. (= Thukydides) Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War. Trans.: C. F. Smith, vols IIV. Cambridge – Massachusetts -London 1998-2006 (The Loeb Classical Library).
Rumi A. J. Arberry, Discourses of Rumi. New York 1977.
Farid ud-Din Attar Farid ud-Din Attar, The Conference of the Birds. Trans. & Intro. A. Darbandi - D. Davis. London 1984.
al-Baghdādi ‘Abd al-Latīf al-Baghdādi, Kitāb al-ifādah wa’l-l’tibār. The Eastern Key. Trans.: K. H. Zand – J. A. & I. E. Videan. London 1965.
al-Qalānisī Ibn al-Qalānisī, The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades. Trans. H. A. R. Gibb. Dover - New York 2002.
Comnena The Alexiad of Anna Comnena. Trans. E. R. A. Sewter. London 1969.
Leo the Wise Leo the Wise, De Navali praelio (Tactica) Naumachia. Trans. A. Dain. Paris 1943.
ibn al-Athir ‘Izz al-Din ibn al-Athir, The Chronicle of ibn Al-Athir for the Crusading Period from al-Kamil f’il-Ta’rikh, The Years 491-541/1097-1146: The coming of the Franks and the Muslim Response. Trans.: D. S. Richards. Farnham 2006.
Ibn Battutah Ibn Battutah, The Travels of Ibn Battutah. Ed. T. Mackintosh-Smith. London 2002.
Liutprand Liutprand of Cremona, The Complete Works of Liutprand. Trans.: P. Squatriti. Washington 2007.
Makhairas Leontis Makhairas, Recital concerning the Sweet Land of Cyprus entitled “Chronicle”, Vol. I. Trans. - Ed. R. M. Dawkins. Oxford 1932.
Masudi Masudi, The Meadows of Gold-The Abbasids. Trans - Ed. P. Lunde - C. Stone. London - New York 1989.
Naser-e Khosraw Naser-e Khosraw, Naser-e Khosraw’s Book of Travels (Safarname). Trans.: W. M. Thackston. Albany 1986.
Marco Polo Marco Polo, The Travels of Marco Polo. Trans.: H. Yule. London 1908.
Villehardouin G. de Villehardouin, La conquête de Constantinople, Vol. II. Ed. E. Faral. Paris 1961.
Count Roger – Duke Robert K. B. Wolf, The Deeds of Count Roger of Calabria and Sicily and of his brother Duke Robert Guiscard by Geoffrey Malaterra. Ann Arbour 2005.
Abulafia 1994 D. Abulafia, A Mediterranean Emporium: The Catalan Kingdom of Majorca. Cambridge 1994.
Abulafia 2012 D. Abulafia, The Great Sea. London 2012.
Abun-Nasr 1971 J. M. Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib. Cambridge 1971.
Amari 1933 M. Amari, Storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia, Volume I. Catania 1933.
Balard 2003 M. Balard, “A Christian Mediterranean, 1000-1500”. Ed. D. Abulafia, The Mediterranean in History. London (2003) 182-217.
Barber 2010 M. Barber, The New Knighthood A History of the Order of the Temple. Cambridge 2010.
Bartlett 1999 W. B. Bartlett, God Wills It! An Illustrated History of the Crusades. Stroud 1999.
Belozerskaya 2009 M. Belozerskaya, To Wake the Dead. New York 2009.
Benedictow 2004 O. Benedictow, The Black Death 1346-1353 A Complete History. Woodbridge – New York 2004.
Beresford 2012 J. Beresford, The Ancient Sailing Season. Leiden 2012.
Braudel 1972 F. Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Phillip II, Vol. 1. Trans. S. Reynolds. New York 1972.
Brett 2001 M. Brett, The Rise of the Fatimids: The World of the Mediterranean and the Middle East in the Tenth century. C.E. Leiden 2001.
Cahen 2001 C. Cahen, The Formation of Turkey The Seljukid Sultanate of Rūm: Eleventh to Fourteenth Century. Trans. & Ed. P. M. Holt. London 2001.
Caspi – Reisfeld 2002 K. Caspi – Reisfeld, “Women Warriors, 1095-1254”. Eds. S. B. Edgington – S. Lambert, Gendering the Crusades. New York (2002) 94-107.
Casson 1979 L. Casson, Travel in the Ancient World. London 1979.
Chittick 1983 W. C. Chittick, The Sufi Path of Love, The Spiritual Teachings of Rumi. New York 1983.
Cowan 2000 A. Cowan, Mediterranean Urban Culture, 1400-1700. Exeter 2000.
Dalli 2006 C. Dalli, Malta the Medieval Millennium. Malta 2006.
Dalrymple 1998 W. Dalrymple, From the Holy Mountain. London 1998.
Davis 2009 D. L. Davis, Commercial Navigation in the Greek and Roman World. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, The University of Texas. Austin 2009.
Duggan – Akçay 2014 T. M. P. Duggan – A. Akçay, “On the Missing Navigational Markers – the Marker Beacon Towers-Pharos of Antiquity - and Notice of Two Extant, the Small Three-Stage in situ Marker Beacon Towers of Roman late Ist century B. C. – early Ist century A.D. Anemorium”. Cedrus II (2014) 377-442.
Duggan – Aygün 2010 T. M. P. Duggan – Ç. A. Aygün, “Medieval port of Myra – Taşdibi - Stamirra”. Ed. N. Çevik, Arkeolojisinden Doğasına Myra/Demre ve Çevresi. Antalya (2010) 161-168.
Edbury 2000 P. W. Edbury, The Kingdom of Cyprus and the Crusades 1191-1374. Cambridge 2000.
Epstein 1996 S. A. Epstein, Genoa & the Genovese 958-1528. Chapel Hill 1996.
Farrow 1943 J. Farrow, Pageant of the Popes. London 1943.
Fletcher 1989 R. Fletcher, The Quest for El Cid. London 1989.
Foss 1997 M. Foss, People of the First Crusade. London 1997.
Frankopan 2012 P. Frankopan, The First Crusade, The Call From The East. London 2012.
Gertwagen 2002 J. Gertwagen, “The Venetian Colonies in the Ionian and the Aegean Seas”. Journal of Mediterranean Studies 12/2 (2002) 351-384.
Hallam 1989 Chronicles of the Crusades-Eye-Wıtness Accounts of the Wars between Christianity and Islam. Ed. E. Hallam. London1989.
Hatipoğlu 2005 H. N. Hatipoğlu, Orta Çağda Akdeniz’de Deniz Güçlerinin Incelenmesi, Anadolu’da ilk Türk Denizciliği (Umur Bey’in Epir Harekātı). İstanbul 2005.
Haws 1976 D. Haws, Ships and the Sea-A Chronological Review. London1976.
Heikell 2001 R. Heikell, Turkish Waters and Cyprus Pilot. Cambridgeshire 2001.
Hill 1948 G. Hill, A History of Cyprus, Vol. II. Cambridge 1948.
Hillenbrand 1999 C. Hillenbrand, The Crusades, Islamic Perspectives. Edinburgh 1999.
Hitti 1991 P. K. Hitti, History of the Arabs. London 1991.
Horden - Purcell 2000 P. Horden – N. Purcell, The Corrupting Sea-A Study of Mediterranean History. Oxford 2001.
Howard 2007 D. Howard, “Venice as an Eastern City”. Ed. S. Carboni, Venice and the Islamic World 828-1797. New Haven - London (2007) 57-71.
Kelly 2006 J. Kelly, The Great Mortality. London 2006.
Kennedy 2007 H. Kennedy, The Great Arab Conquests. London 2007.
Labib 1978 S. Labib, “Egyptian Commercial Policy in the Middle Ages”. Ed. M. A. Cook, Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East from the Rise of Islam to the Present Day. Oxford (1978) 63-77.
Lev 1987 Y. Lev, “Army, Regime, and Society in Fatimid Egypt, 358-487/968- 1094”. International Journal of Middle East Studies 19/3 (1987) 337-365.
Lock 2013 P. Lock, The Routledge Companion to the Crusades. London – New York 2013.
Lopez - Raymond 1990 R. S. Lopez - I. W. Raymond, Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World, Illustrative Documents Translated with Introduction and Notes. New York - Oxford 1990.
Luttrell 1978 A. T. Luttrell, “The Hospitaller interventions in Cilician Armenia: 1291- 1375”. Ed T. S. R. Boase, The Cilician Kingdom of Armenia. Edinburgh (1978) 118-144.
Mangone 1997 G. J. Mangone, United States Admiralty Law. Nijhoff 1997.
McCormick 2001 M. McCormick, Origins of the European Economy. Communications and Commerce AD 300-900. Cambridge 2001.
Metcalfe 2009 A. Metcalfe, The Muslims of Medieval Italy. Edinburgh 2009.
Mott 2003 L. V. Mott, Sea Power in the Medieval Mediterranean: The CatalanAragonese Fleet in the War of the Sicilian Vespers. Florida 2003.
Nicholson 1922 R. A. Nicholson, Translations of Eastern Poetry and Prose. Cambridge 1922.
Nicol 1999 D. M. Nicol, The Last Centuries of Byzantium 1261-1453. Cambridge 1999.
Nicolle 2001 D. Nicolle, “Moors against Majus: The Defence of Spain and Morocco against the Vikings 844-97 AD”. Osprey Military Journal 2/3 (2001) 23-32.
Nicolle 2007a D. Nicolle, Crusader Warfare Vol. II, Muslims, Mongols and the struggle against the Crusades. London 2007.
Nicolle 2007b D. Nicolle, Fighting for the Faith, the many fronts of Crusade & Jihad 1000-1500 AD. Barnsley 2007.
Nicolle 2008 D. Nicolle, Knights of Jerusalem, The Crusading Order of Hospitallers 1100-1565. Oxford 2008.
Norwich 1976 J. J. Norwich, The Kingdom in the Sun. London 1976.
Norwich 1982 J. J. Norwich, A History of Venice. New York 1982.
Norwich 1995 J. J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Decline and Fall. London 1995.
O’Callaghan 1983 J. F. O’Callaghan, A History of Medieval Spain. New York 1983.
O’Callaghan 2011 J. F. O’Callaghan, The Gibraltar Crusade: Castille and the Battle for the Strait. Pennsylvania 2011.
Origo 1992 I. Origo, The Merchant of Prato, Francesco di Marco Datini. London 1992.
Ostrogorsky 1991 G. Ostrogorsky, History of the Byzantine State. New Brunswick 1991.
Phillips 2010 J. Phillips, Holy Warriors, A modern History of the Crusades. London 2010.
Pirenne 2005 H. Pirenne, Economic and Social History of Medieval Europe. Oxon 2005.
Pryor 1992 J. H. Pryor, Geography, Technology and War-Studies in the Maritime History of the Mediterranean 649-1571. Cambridge 1992.
Queller – Madden 1997 D. E Queller - T. F. Madden, The Fourth Crusade, The Conquest of Constantinople. Philadelphia 1997.
Redford – Leiser 2008 S. Redford - G. Leiser, Victory Inscribed. Antalya 2008.
Rogers 2010 The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Technology, Vol. I. Ed. C. Rogers. Oxford 2010.
Runciman 1960 S. Runciman, The Sicilian Vespers. London 1960.
Runciman 1980 S. Runciman, The First Crusade. Cambridge 1980.
Seal 2006 J. Seal, Santa-A Life. London 2006.
Setton 1969 A History of the Crusades, The Later Crusades, 1189-1311, Vol. II. Ed. K. M. Setton. Madison1969.
Simonsen 2010 K. Simonsen, “Review of N. M. Dimitrova, Theoroi and Initiates in Samothrace: The Epigraphical Evidence”. 2010 (114.1). Source: http://www.ajaonline.org/online-review-book/664.
Stevenson 2012 W. B. Stevenson, The Crusades in the East: A brief history of the Wars of Islam with the Latins in Syria during the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries. Cambridge 2012.
Udovitch, 1978 A. L. Udovitch, “Time, Sea and Society: Duration of Commercial Voyages on the Southern Shores of the Mediterranean during the High Middle Ages”. Ed. D. Abulafia, La Navigazione Mediterranea nell’ alto medioevo, Settimane di studio del Centro italiano di studi sull'alto, 25, II. Spoleto (1978) 503-546.
van Cleve 1972 T. C. van Cleve, The Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen - Immutator Mundi. Oxford 1972.
Viollet 2007 P-L. Viollet, Water Engineering in Ancient Civilisations, 5,000 years of History. Florida 2007.
Wickham 2009 C. Wickham, The Inheritance of Rome – A history of Europe from 400 to 1000. London 2009.
Wilkinson 2002 J. Wilkinson, Jerusalem Pilgrims before the Crusades. Warminster 2002. Wright 2003 T. Wright, Travellers in Palestine. New York 2003.
Yerasimos 1991 S. Yerasimos, Les Voyageures Dans L’Empire Ottoman (XIV-XVI siécles). Ankara1991.
Zwemer 1902 S. M. Zwemer, Raymund Lull: Missionary to the Moslems. New York - London 1902.