NIKITA HRUŞOV DÖNEMİNDE SSCB VE AFRİKA ARASINDAKİ İLİŞKİLER

Hruşov yönetimindeki Sovyet Sosyalist Cumhuriyet Birliği, geçmiş liderlerle kıyasla Afrikasiyasetinde değişikliğe gitmiş ve dolayısıyla olağandışı bir durum yaşanmıştır. Kıtanın özellikleri veuluslararası konjonktürdeki değişiklikler, Moskova’nın bu olağandışı tutumunu ise olağan kılmıştır. Buna göreSovyet dış politikasında ve ideolojisinde esnekliğe gidilmiş ve Afrika ile ortak nokta bulunmaya, kıtanınpotansiyeli kullanılmaya çalışılmıştır. Kremlin, bağımsızlığını kazanan bu ülkelere komünizmin yerleşmesini,Sovyet modelinin uygulanmasını sağlayarak ve Üçüncü Dünya’nın bu aktörlerini yanına çekerek Batı’ya karşıüstünlük sağlanmayı amaçlamıştır. Öncelikli hedeflerin gerçekleşmemesi durumunda ya da hedeflere gidensüreçte farklı veya tamamlayıcı amaçlara başvurulabilmiştir. Sovyetler Birliği ve Afrika arasındaki ortaknoktalar sınırlı olmuş, yakınlaşmaya dair eksikler yeni araçları benimsetmiştir. Afrika’nın sömürge geçmişineve kalkınma odaklı geleceğine Moskova yanıt vermiştir. Fakat Hruşov döneminin hedefleri tümüylegerçekleşememiştir. Moskova ve Afrika ülkeleri işbirliğinde, ideolojik ve siyasi değişikliğin çizdiği çerçeveyeuyumda sınanmıştır.

Relations Between the USSR and Africa in Nikita Khrushchev’s Era

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) under Khrushchev’s governance, compared with previous leaders, changed its policy on Africa and hence an extraordinary situation happened. However the peculiarities of Africa and changes in international conjuncture, transformed Moscow’s extraordinary approach to an ordinary one. Accordingly, the Soviet policy and ideology were made flexible and the USSR tried to find common grounds with Africa and use its potential. Through application of Soviet model and communism in Africa, making alliances with the Third World’s newly independent actors Kremlin aimed to have superiority against the Western world. Along the process of reaching to ultimate goals or in the case of failing to achieve primary aims; different or supplementary aims could be adopted. The common points between the Soviet Union and Africa were limited and absence of several factors regarding bilateral rapprochement resulted in adoption of new tools. Moscow gave answers to Africa’s colonial past and development oriented future. The goals of Khrushchev’s era were not completely realized. Moscow and the African states were tested in bilateral cooperation and in conformity to the framework drawn by ideological and political changes.

PDF

___

(2012), “Lasting Legacy: The Soviet Theory of the National-Democratic Revolution and South Africa”, South African Historical Journal, 64 (3): 507-537.
Adedeji, Adebayo (1999), “Chapter 14: Comparative Strategies of Economic Decolonization in Africa”, Mazrui, Ali A. (Der.),General History of Africa Since 1935, Vol. 8, Unabridged Edition, (California: University of California Press): 393-434.
Adelman, Jonathan R. ve Deborah Anne Palmieri (1989), “Chapter 10: Khruschev’s Regional Policy, 1955-1964”, in The Dynamics of Soviet Foreign Policy, (New York: Harper&Row Publishers)
Akalın, Güneri (1966), “ABD ve SSCB Ekonomik Yardımların Karşılaştırılmaslı Özellikleri”, A.Ü.S.B.F.D., XXI (1), 47-87.
Armaoğlu, Fahir H., “Barış İçinde Birarada Yaşama’nın Sovyet Yorumu”, A.Ü.S.B.F.D., Doç. Dr. Cem Sar’a Armağan, XXVII/3 (1972), 283-314.
Benites, Kirsten (2007), “Repatriation of Ethnic Groups”, Topical Research Digest: Human Rights in Russia and the Former Soviet Republics, https://www.du.edu/korbel/hrhw/researchdigest/ russia/russia.pdf: 89-97. (28 Mayıs 2018 tarihinde erişilmiştir)
Brazinsky, Gregg A. (2017), Winning the Third World: Sino-American Rivalry During the Cold War (Capitol Hill: The University of North Carolina Press).
Brind, Harry (1984), “Soviet Policy in the Horn of Africa”, International Affairs, 60 (1): 75-95.
Cantori, Louis (2002), “Chapter 10: Egypt: Moribound Between Past and Future), Robert O. Freedman (Der.), The Middle East Enters the Twenty-First Century, (Miami: University Press of Florida).
Charles, Miléna (1978), “The Changing Vision of the African Working Class- A Component of Soviet Strategy in Black Africa?”,The Journal of Modern African Studies, 16 (4): 695-700.
Copp, John W., (1986), "Egypt and the Soviet Union, 1953-1970" Dissertations and Theses Paper 3797.
Cox, Michael (1990), “The National and Colonial Question in the First Five Years of the Comintern, 1921-24”, Serachlight South Africa, 1(4): 33-43.
D’encausse, Héléne Carrére, (2002), “Dünya Devrimimi? Tek Bir Ülke Devrimi mi?”, Lenin, çev. Ali Cevat Akkoyunlu, (İstanbul: Doğan Kitap), 301-333.
Farber, Samuel (2006), “The Role of the Soviet Union and the Cuban Communists”, The Origins of the Cuban Revolution: Reconsidered, (North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press): 137-166.
Fedorenko, Nikolai (1964), “The Soviet Union and the African Countries”, Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 354, Africa in Motion (Jul., 1964)
Filatova, Irina(2007) , “Chapter 10: Anti-Colonialism in Soviet African Studies (1920s-1960)”, Zeleza, Paul Tiyambe (Der.), The Study of Africa –Vol. II: Global and Transnational Engagements, (Dakar: CODESRIA): 203-234.
Fituni, Leonid L. (1992), “Russia’s Arm Sales to Africa: Past, Present, and Future”, CSIS Africa Notes, Number 140: 1-6.
Friedman, Jeremy (2015), “Free at Last, Now What: The Soviet and Chinese Attempts to Offer a Road-Map for the Post-Colonial World”, Modern China Studies, 22 (1): 259-292.
Gati, Charles (1984), “The Stalinist Legacy in Soviet Foreign Policy”, Hoffmann, Erik P. (Der.), The Soviet Union in the 1980s, (New York: APS): 214-226.
Ginat, Rami (1990), The Soviet Union and Egypt, 1947-1955, (Parkway: Proquest)
Gish. Steven (2003), “Review of van Diemel, Raymond, In Search of “Freedom, Fair Play and Justice”: Josiah Tshangana Gumede,” 1867-1947: A Biography. H-SAfrica, H-Net Reviews.
Golan, Galia (1990), Soviet Policies in the Middle East: From World War II to Gorbachev, (Cambridge: Cambridge Universtiy Press).
Guan-Fu, Gu, (1983), “Soviet Aid to the Third World an Analysis of Its Stratgy”, Soviet Studies, 35 ( 1): 71-89.
H.,M. (1956), “Soviet Interest in Africa”, The World Today, 12 (9): 355-361.
Hammer, Darrell P. (1997), “Soviet Nationality Policy Reappraised”, The National Council for Soviet and East European Research, Title VIII Program, Washington DC: 1-39.
Hoffman, Erik P (1987), “Soviet Foreign Policy Aims and Accomplishments from Lenin to Brezhnev”, Laird, Robbin F. (Der.), Soviet Foreign Policy, (New York: APS).
Hopwood, Derek (1993), Egypt, 1945-1990: Politcs and Society,( New York: Routledge).
Hosmer, Stephen T. ve Thomas W. Wolfe (1983), Soviet Policy and Practice toward Third World Conflicts, (Massachusetts: Lexington Books).
Hutcheson, Thomas Mitchell (1980), Soviet Foreign Policy in Guinea and Somalia: Implications for American Policy Toward Africa, (California: Naval Post Graduate School) Thesis
Iandolo, Alessandro (2014), “Imbalance of Power: The Soviet Union and the Congo Crisis, 1960- 1961”, Journal of Cold War Studies,16 (2): 32-55.
Iandolo, Alessandro(2012), “The Rise and Fall of the ‘Soviet Model of Development’ in West Africa, 1957-64”, Cold War History, 12 (4): 683-704
Joshua, Wynfred, ve Stephen P. Gibert (1969), “Chapter 3: Sub-Saharan Africa”, Arms for the Third World: Soviet Military Aid Diplomacy, (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press)
Jr., Biggio, Charles . P (1966), The USSR and the National Liberation Movement, (Pennsylvania: US Army War College).
Khrushchev, Nikita S. (1959), “On Peaceful Coexistence”, Foreign Affairs, 38 (1): 1-18.
Klinghoffer, Arthur Jay (1969), Soviet Perspectives on African Socialism, (Cranbury: Fairleigh Dickinson UniversityPress).
L. Nogee, Joseph (20 June 1980), The Soviet Union in the Third World: Successes and Failures, (Strategic Studies Institute US ArmyWarCollege, Pennsylvania)
Laidi, Zaki(1990), The Superpowers and Africa: The Constraints of a Rivalry, 1960-1990, (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press).
Legum, Colin, “The Soviet Union, China and the West in Southern Africa”, Foreign Affairs, 745-762
Lewis, William H. (1964), “Chapter 13: Sub-Saharan Africa”, Black, Cyril E. ve Thomas P. Thornton (Der.), Communism And Revolution: The Strategic Uses Of Political Violence (New Jersey: Princeton University Press): 367-390.
Morison, David (1964),The USSR and Africa: 1945-1963, (London: Oxford University Press).
Mosely, Philip E. (1964) “Soviet Policy in the Developing Countries”, Foreign Affairs, 43 (1): 87-98.
Muehlenbeck, Philip (2016), Czechoslovakia in Africa, 1945-1968, (Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan).
Natufe, O. Igho (2011), Soviet Policy in Africa: From Lenin to Brezhnev, (Bloomington: iUniverse, , 2011).
Nogee, Joseph L. ve Robert H. Donaldson (1985), “Chapter 6: The Soviet Union and the Third World: Khrushchev and the Legacies of Lenin and Stalin”,Soviet Foregin Policy since World War II, 2nd ed.,(New York:Pergaman Press).
Payne, Richard J. (1988), Opportunities and Dangers of Soviet-Cuban Expansion: Towards a Pragmatic U.S. Policy, (New York: State University of New York Press)
Pick, Hella (1961), “The Brazaville Twelve”, Africa South in Exile, 5 (3): 76-84.
Quinn, John Jaöes (2016), Global Geopolitical Power and African Political and Economic Institutions, (London: Lexington Books)
Radchenko, Sergey (2012),“The Soviet Union and Asia, 1940s-1960s”, (der) Uyama Tomohiko, Empire and After: Essays in Comparative Imperial and Decolonization Studies, 2012, Sapporo Slavic Research Center, Hokkaido University: 99-116.
Reinalda, Bob (2009), History of International Organizations: From 1815 to the Present Day, (New York: Routledge).
Ro’i, Yaacov (1973), From Encroachment to Involvement: A Documentary Study of Soviet Policy in the Middle East 1945-1973, (New York: Halsted Press).
Sayle, Timothy Andrews (2016), “’A Great List of Potential Mistakes’: NATO, Africa, and the British Efforts to Limit the Global Cold War”, Cold War History, 16 (1): 19-36.
Scalapino, Robert A. (1964), “Sino-Soviet Competition in Africa”, Foreign Affairs, 42 (4): 640-654.
Shinn, Jr., William T. (1963), “The ‘National Democratic State’: A Communist Program for Less- Developed Areas”, World Politcs, 15 (3): 377-389.
Shubin, Vladimir (2004), “Russia and Africa: Moving in the Right Direction?”, Taylor, Ian and Paul Williams (Der.), Africa in International Politics: External Involvement on the Continent, (Routledge: London,):102-115.
Smitt, Alan H. (1985), “Soviet Trade Relations with the Third World”, Cassen, Robert (Der.), Soviet Interests in the Third World, (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs).
Talal Nizameddin (1999), Russia and the Middle East: Towards a New Foreign Policy, (New York: St. Martin’s Press).
Tellal, Erel (2007), “Sovyet Dış Politikası ve Gromıko”, SBF Dergisi, 62 (3): 349-377.
Walz, Jay (1964), “Khrushchev Opens First Africa Visit”, The New York Times, https://www.nytimes.com/1964/05/10/khrushchev-opens-first-africa-visit.html, (10.05.1964).
Weizu, Chin (1999),“Chapter 26: Africa and the Capitalist Countries”, Mazrui, Ali A. (Der.),General History of Africa Since 1935, Vol. 8, Unabridged Edition, (California: University of California Press): 769-797.
Whelan, Joseph G. (1961), “Khrushchev and the Balance of World Power”, The Review of Politcs, 23 (2): 131-152.
Winek, Mark D., (2009), “Radio as a Tool of the State: Radio Moscow and the Early Cold War”, Comparative Humanities Review, (3: 9): 99-113.
Yıldırım, Huriye. (2014), “SSCB’den Günümüze Rus Dış Politikası Kapsamında Afrika”, Çankırı Karatekin Üniversitesi Uluslararası Avrasya Strateji Dergisi, 3 (2): 31-52.
Zagonia, Donald S. (1962), Sino-Soviet Conflict, 1956-1961, (London: Oxford University Press).
Zhemukhov, Sufian ve Şener Aktürk (2015), “The Movement Toward a Monolingual Nation in Russia: The Language Policy in the Circassian Republics of the Northern Caucasus”, Journal of Caucasian Studies, 1 (1): 33-68.
Zoubir, Yahia H. (1995), “The United States, the Soviet Union and Decolonization of the Maghreb, 1945-62”, Middle Eastern Studies, 31 (1): 58-84.
Zwick, Peter (1990), Soviet Foreign Relations: Process and Policy, (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc).