Diyette Proteinler, Aminoasitler ve Bazı Diğer Aminli Bileşiklerin Kardiyovasküler Sistem Üzerine Metabolik Etkileri

Dünyadaki ölüm nedenleri arasında ilk sırada yer alan kardiyovasküler hastalıkların önlenmesi ve tedavisi için diyet büyük önem arz etmektedir. Kardiyovasküler sistem üzerine etkili beslenme programları genellikle lipid ve karbonhidratlar üzerinde odaklanmışken proteinlerin etkisi göz ardı edilmektedir. Bu nedenle bu derleme; diyetteki proteinlerin, aminoasitlerin ve bazı diğer aminli bileşiklerin kardiyovasküler sağlık üzerine etkilerinin incelenmesi amacıyla yazılmıştır. Hayvansal veya bitkisel kaynaklı proteinler; süt ve süt ürünleri, yumurta, et, tavuk ve balık etleri, baklagiller ve tahıllar gibi besinler farklı protein kompozisyonuna sahip oldukları için kan basıncı ve lipid profilinin regülasyonu üzerine etkileri değişmektedir. Proteinleri oluşturan aminoasitler de protein kaynaklarına benzer olarak kardiyovasküler sistem üzerine farklı etkilere sahiptir. Bu açıdan kükürtlü aminoasitler başta olmak üzere aromatik aminoasitler, dallı zincirli aminoasitler, arjinin, ornitin, sitrulin, glisin ve glutamin aminoasitleri kardiyovasküler sistemi farklı metabolik yollarla etkilemektedir. Bu kapsamda tek karbon metabolizması, hormon sentezi, sinyal yollarının uyarılması ve aminoasitlerin metabolizmaları sonucunda oluşan ara ve son ürünlerin etkileri sayılabilir. Protein ve aminoasitlerin dışında diyetle alınan diğer aminli bileşikler içinde trimetilamin N-oksit, heterosiklik aromatik aminler, polisiklik aromatik hidrokarbonlar ve maillard reaksiyonu ürünleri yer almaktadır. Bu aminli bileşikler genellikle oksidatif stresi, inflamasyonu ve aterosklerotik plak gelişimi tetikleyerek kardiyovasküler hastalıklar için risk oluşturabilmektedir.

Metabolic Effects of Dietary Proteins, Amino Acids and The Other Amine Consisting Compounds on Cardiovascular System

During the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases, first cause of deaths in the world, diet has a vital role. While nutrition programs for the cardiovascular health generally focus on lipids and carbohydrates, effects of proteins are not well concerned. Thus this review is written in order to examine effect of proteins, amino acids, and the other amine consisting compounds on cardiovascular system. Because of that animal or plant derived proteins have different protein composition in different foods such as dairy products, egg, meat, chicken, fish, pulse and grains, their effects on blood pressure and regulation of lipid profile are unlike. In parallel amino acids made up proteins have different effect on cardiovascular system. From this point, sulfur containing amino acids, branched chain amino acids, aromatic amino acids, arginine, ornithine, citrulline, glycine, and glutamine may affect cardiovascular system in different metabolic pathways. In this context, one carbon metabolism, synthesis of hormone, stimulation of signaling pathways and effects of intermediate and final products that formed as a result of amino acids metabolism is determined. Despite the protein and amino acids, some other amine consisting compounds in diet include trimethylamine N-oxide, heterocyclic aromatic amines, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and products of Maillard reaction. These amine consisting compounds generally increase the risk for cardiovascular diseases by stimulating oxidative stress, inflammation, and formation of atherosclerotic plaque.

PDF

___

Alaejos MS, González V, Afonso A. 2008. Exposure to heterocyclic aromatic amines from the consumption of cooked red meat and its effect on human cancer risk: A review. Food Additives & Contaminant., 25(1): 2-24. doi:10.1080/02652030701474235
Alshaarawy O, Elbaz HA, Andrew ME. 2016. The association of urinary polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon biomarkers and cardiovascular disease in the US population. Environment International., 89-90: 174-178. doi:10.1016/ j.envint.2016.02.006
Andersen CJ. 2015. Bioactive egg components and inflammation. Nutrients., 7(9): 7889-7913. doi:10.3390/ nu7095372
Astrup A. 2014. Yogurt and dairy product consumption to prevent cardiometabolic diseases: epidemiologic and experimental studies. Am J Clin Nutr., 99(5 Suppl): 1235S1242S. doi:10.3945/ajcn.113.073015
Atzler D, Schwedhelm E, Choe C.-u. 2015. L-Homoarginine and cardiovascular disease. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care., 18(1): 83-88. doi:10.1097/mco.0000000000000123
Baggott J, Tamura T. 2015. Homocysteine, iron and cardiovascular disease: A hypothesis. Nutrients., 7(2): 1108- 1118. doi:10.3390/nu7021108
Bahri S, Zerrouk N, Aussel C, Moinard C, Crenn P, Curis E, Chaumeil JC, Cynober L, Sfar S. 2013. Citrulline: from metabolism to therapeutic use. Nutrition., 29(3): 479-484. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2012.07.002
Balderas-Munoz K, Castillo-Martínez L, Orea-Tejeda A, Infante-Vázquez O, Utrera-Lagunas M, Martínez-Memije R, Keirns-Davis C, Becerra-Luna B, Sánchez-Vidal G. 2012. Improvement of ventricular function in systolic heart failure patients with oral L-citrulline supplementation. Cardiology Journal., 9(6): 612-617.
Baradaran A, Nasri H, Rafieian-Kopaei M. 2014. Oxidative stress and hypertension: Possibility of hypertension therapy with antioxidants. J Res Med Sci., 19: 358-367.
Batch BC, Hyland K, Svetkey LP. 2013. Branch chain amino acids. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care., 17(1): 86-89. doi:10.1097/mco.0000000000000010 Bhupathiraju SN, Tucker KL. 2011. Coronary heart disease prevention: nutrients, foods, and dietary patterns. Clin Chim Acta., 412(17-18): 1493-1514. doi:10.1016/j.cca.2011.04.038
Birlouez-Aragon I, Saavedra G, Tessier FJ, Galinier A, AitAmeur L, Lacoste F, Niamba CN, Alt N, Somoza V, Lecerf JM. 2010. A diet based on high-heat-treated foods promotes risk factors for diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular diseases. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition., 91(5): 1220-1226. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.28737.
Brenner S, Bercovich Z, Feiler Y, Keshet R, Kahana C. 2015. Dual regulatory role of polyamines in adipogenesis. Journal of Biological Chemistry., 290(45): 27384-27392. doi:10.1074/jbc.M115.686980
Carvalho AM, Miranda AM, Santos FA, Loureiro APM, Fisberg RM, Marchioni DM. 2015. High intake of heterocyclic amines from meat is associated with oxidative stress. British Journal of Nutrition., 113(08): 1301-1307. doi:10.1017/s0007114515000628
Carvalho DO, Correia E, Lopes L, Guido LF. 2014. Further insights into the role of melanoidins on the antioxidant potential of barley malt. Food Chemistry., 160: 127-133. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.03.074.
Cavazos A, Gonzalez de Mejia E. 2013. Identification of bioactive peptides from cereal storage proteins and their potential role in prevention of chronic diseases. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety., 12(4): 364-380. doi:10.1111/1541-4337.12017.
Chakrabarti S, Jahandideh F, Wu J. 2014. Food-derived bioactive peptides on inflammation and oxidative stress. BioMed Research International., 2014: 1-11. doi:10.1155/2014/608979.
Clifton PM, Bastiaans K, Keogh JB. 2009. High protein diets decrease total and abdominal fat and improve CVD risk profile in overweight and obese men and women with elevated triacylglycerol. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis., 19(8): 548-554. doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2008.10.006.
Dahl WJ, Foster LM, Tyler RT. 2012. Review of the health benefits of peas (Pisum sativum L.). British Journal of Nutrition., 108(S1): S3-S10. doi:10.1017/ s0007114512000852.
de Luis DA, Aller R, Izaola O, Primo D, Urdiales S, Romero E. 2015. Effects of a high-protein/low-carbohydrate diet versus a standard hypocaloric diet on weight and cardiovascular risk factors: role of a genetic variation in the rs9939609 FTO gene variant. Journal of Nutrigenetics and Nutrigenomics., 8(3): 128-136. doi:10.1159/000441142.
Drosos I, Tavridou A, Kolios G. 2015. New aspects on the metabolic role of intestinal microbiota in the development of atherosclerosis. Metabolism., 64(4): 476-481. doi:10.1016/j.metabol.2015.01.007.
Duntas LH, Brenta G. 2012. The effect of thyroid disorders on lipid levels and metabolism. Medical Clinics of North America., 96(2): 269-281. doi:10.1016/j.mcna.2012.01.012.
EFSA. 2009. European Food Safety Authority. Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to taurine and protection of DNA, proteins and lipids from oxidative damage (ID 612, 1658, 1959), energy-yielding metabolism (ID 614), and delay in the onset of fatigue and enhancement of physical performance (ID 1660). EFSA Journal., 7(9): 1260. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2009.1260.
EFSA. 2010a. European Food Safety Authority. Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to bonito protein peptide and maintenance of normal blood pressure. EFSA Journal., 8(10): 1730. doi:10.2903/ j.efsa.2010.1730.
EFSA. 2010b. European Food Safety Authority. Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of a health claim related to soy protein and reduction of blood cholesterol concentrations. EFSA Journal., 8(7): 1688. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1688.
El Khoury D, Anderson GH. 2013. Recent advances in dietary proteins and lipid metabolism. Curr Opin Lipidol., 24(3): 207-213. doi:10.1097/MOL.0b013e3283613bb7.
Ellis A, Patterson M, Dudenbostel T, Calhoun D, Gower B. 2014. Effects of 6-month supplementation with β-hydroxyβ- methylbutyrate, glutamine and arginine on vascular endothelial function of older adults. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition., 70: 269–273. doi:10.1038/ejcn.2015.137
FDA. 2013. Food and Drug Administration. A food labeling guide: guidance for industry. http://www.fda.gov/ Food/GuidanceRegulation/GuidanceDocumentsRegulatoryI nformation/LabelingNutrition/ucm064866.htm, (erişim tarihi: 20.06.2016).
Ferguson LR. 2010. Meat and cancer. Meat Science., 84(2): 308-313. doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2009.06.032.
Gadkari T, Cortes N, Madrasi K, Tsoukias N, Joshi M. 2013. Agmatine induced NO dependent rat mesenteric artery relaxation and its impairment in salt-sensitive hypertension. Nitric Oxide., 35: 65–71. doi:10.1016/j.niox.2013.08.005. Ganguly P, Alam S. 2015. Role of homocysteine in the development of cardiovascular disease. Nutrition Journal., 14: 6.
García MC, Puchalska P, Esteve C, Marina ML. 2013. Vegetable foods: A cheap source of proteins and peptides with antihypertensive, antioxidant, and other less occurrence bioactivities. Talanta., 106: 328-349. doi:10.1016 /j.talanta.2012.12.041.
Glier MB, Green TJ, Devlin AM. 2014. Methyl nutrients, DNA methylation, and cardiovascular disease. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research., 58(1): 172-182. doi:10.1002/mnfr.201200636.
Goshima Y, Nakamura F, Masukawa D, Chen S, Koga M. 2014. The cardiovascular actions of DOPA mediated by the gene product of ocular albinism 1. Journal of Pharmacological Sciences., 126(1): 14-20. doi:10.1254/jphs.14R03CR. Heffernan KS, Fahs CA, Ranadive SM., Patvardhan EA. 2010.
Review Article: L-Arginine as a nutritional prophylaxis against vascular endothelial dysfunction with aging. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology and Therapeutics., 15(1): 17-23. doi:10.1177/1074248409354599.
Hov G, Aasarød K, Sagen E, Åsberg A. 2015. Arginine, dimethylated arginine and homoarginine in relation to cardiovascular risk in patients with moderate chronic kidney disease. Clinical Biochemistry., 48: 646–651. doi:10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2015.03.012.
Huang Y, Zhou M, Sun H, Wang Y. 2011. Branched-chain amino acid metabolism in heart disease: an epiphenomenon or a real culprit? Cardiovascular Research., 90(2): 220-223. doi:10.1093/cvr/cvr070.
Ierardi E, Sorrentino C, Principi M, Giorgio F, Losurdo G, Di Leo A. 2015. Intestinal microbial metabolism of phosphatidylcholine: a novel insight in the cardiovascular risk scenario. HepatoBiliary Surg Nutr., 4(4): 289-292. doi:10.3978/j.issn.2304-3881.2015.02.01.
Jahan-Mihan A, Luhovy BL, El Khoury D, Anderson GH. 2011. Dietary proteins as determinants of metabolic and physiologic functions of the gastrointestinal tract. Nutrients., 3(5): 574-603. doi:10.3390/nu3050574.
Jazwinska-Kozuba A, Martens-Lobenhoffer J, Kruszelnicka O, Rycaj J, Chyrchel B, Surdacki A, Bode-Boger SM. 2013.
Opposite associations of plasma homoarginine and ornithine with arginine in healthy children and adolescents. Int J Mol Sci., 14(11): 21819-21832. doi:10.3390/ijms141121819.
Kellow NJ, Coughlan MT. 2015. Effect of diet-derived advanced glycation end products on inflammation. Nutrition Reviews., 73(11): 737-759. doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuv030.
Kendler BS. (2006). Supplemental conditionally essential nutrients in cardiovascular disease therapy. Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing., 21(1), 9-16.
Kirchmair R, Maia AR, Batista TM, Victorio JA, Clerici SP, Delbin MA, Carneiro EM, Davel AP. 2014. Taurine supplementation reduces blood pressure and prevents endothelial dysfunction and oxidative stress in post-weaning protein-restricted rats. Plos One., 9(8): e105851. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0105851.
Kouguchi T, Ohmori T, Shimizu M, Takahata Y, Maeyama Y, Suzuki T, Morimatsu F, Tanabe S. 2014. Effects of a chicken collagen hydrolysate on the circulation system in subjects with mild hypertension or high-normal blood pressure. Bioscience, Biotechnology and Biochemistry., 77(4): 691-696. doi:10.1271/bbb.120718.
Koury OH, Scheede-Bergdahl C, Bergdahl A. 2014. The role of casein in the development of hypercholesterolemia. J Physiol Biochem., 70(4): 1021-1028. doi:10.1007/s13105- 014-0365-9.
Krzyściak W. 2011. Activity of selected aromatic amino acids in biological systems. Acta Biochimica Polonica., 58(4): 461– 466.
Lafarga T, Hayes M. 2014. Bioactive peptides from meat muscle and by-products: generation, functionality and application as functional ingredients. Meat Science., 98(2): 227-239. doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2014.05.036.
Li H, Horke S, Förstermann U. 2014. Vascular oxidative stress, nitric oxide and atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis., 237(1): 208-219. doi:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2014.09.001.
Lin Y, Zhang X, Wang L, Zhao Y, Li H, Xiao W, Xu C, Liu J. 2014. Polyamine depletion attenuates isoproterenol-induced hypertrophy and endoplasmic reticulum stress in cardiomyocytes. Cellular Physiology and Biochemistry., 34(5): 1455-1465. doi:10.1159/000366350.
Liu J, Jia SH, Kirberger M, Chen N. 2014. Lunasin as a promising health-beneficial peptide. European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences., 18: 2070-2075.
Liu P, Cheng H, Roberts TM, Zhao JJ. 2009. Targeting the phosphoinositide 3-kinase pathway in cancer. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery., 8(8): 627-644. doi:10.1038/nrd2926.
Lopez-Mendez C, Bermudez-Fajardo A, Ioannides C, OviedoOrta E. 2009. Effect of 2-amino-9H-pyrido[2,3-b]indole (AαC), a carcinogenic heterocyclic amine present in food, on atherosclerotic plaque development in apoE deficient mice. Toxicology Letters., 185(2): 73-78. doi:10.1016/j.toxlet.2008.11.014.
Lorin J, Zeller M, Guilland JC, Cottin Y, Vergely C, Rochette L. 2014. Arginine and nitric oxide synthase: Regulatory mechanisms and cardiovascular aspects. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research., 58(1): 101-116. doi:10.1002/ mnfr.201300033.
Lubrano V, Balzan S. 2015. Enzymatic antioxidant system in vascular inflammation and coronary artery disease. World Journal of Experimental Medicine., 5(4): 218-224. doi:10.5493/.
Lule VK, Garg S, Pophaly SD, Hitesh SK. 2015. Potential health benefits of lunasin: A multifaceted soy-derived bioactive peptide. Journal of Food Science., 80(3): R485- R494. doi:10.1111/1750-3841.12786.
Majumder K, Liang G, Chen Y, Guan L, Davidge ST, Wu J. 2015. Egg ovotransferrin-derived ACE inhibitory peptide IRW increases ACE2 but decreases proinflammatory genes expression in mesenteric artery of spontaneously hypertensive rats. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research., 59(9): 1735-1744. doi:10.1002/mnfr.201500050.
Malaguti M, Dinelli G, Leoncini E, Bregola V, Bosi S, Cicero A, Hrelia S. 2014. Bioactive peptides in cereals and legumes: agronomical, biochemical and clinical aspects. International Journal of Molecular Sciences., 15(11): 21120- 21135. doi:10.3390/ijms151121120.
Malhotra JD, Kaufman RJ. 2007. Endoplasmic reticulum stress and oxidative stress: A vicious cycle or a double-edged sword? Antioxidants & Redox Signaling., 9(12): 2277-2294. doi:10.1089/ars.2007.1782.
Mangge H, Stelzer I, Reininghaus E, Weghuber D, Postolache T, Fuchs D. 2014. Disturbed tryptophan metabolism in cardiovascular disease. Current Medicinal Chemistry., 21(1).
Mangge H, Zelzer S, Prüller F, Schnedl WJ, Weghuber D, Enko D, Bergsten P, Haybaeck J, Meinitzer A. 2016. Branchedchain amino acids are associated with cardiometabolic risk profiles found already in lean, overweight and obese young. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry., 32: 123-127. doi:10.1016/j.jnutbio.2016.02.007.
Martí-Carvajal A, Solà I, Lathyris D. 2015. Homocysteinelowering interventions for preventing cardiovascular events. The Cochrane Collaboration., http://www. thecochranelibrary.com. (erişim tarihi: 27.07.2016)
Martinez-Gonzalez MA, Ruiz-Canela M, Hruby A, Liang L, Trichopoulou A, Hu FB. 2016. Intervention trials with the mediterranean diet in cardiovascular prevention: Understanding potential mechanisms through metabolomic profiling. J Nutr., doi:10.3945/jn.115.219147.
Miguel M, Aleixandre A. 2006. Antihypertensive peptides derived from egg proteins. Journal of Nutrition., 136: 1457– 1460.
Murakami, S. 2012. Taurine and atherosclerosis. Amino Acids., 46(1): 73-80. doi:10.1007/s00726-012-1432-6.
Murkovic M. 2007. Analysis of heterocyclic aromatic amines. Anal Bioanal Chem., 389: 139–146.
Murphy DB, Behiery HE, Chan VW, & JF, F. (2001). Pharmacokinetic profile of epidurally administered methylnaltrexone, a novel peripheral opioid antagonist in a rabbit model. British Journal of Anaesthesia., 86(1): 120- 122.
Nergiz-Unal R, Lamers MM, Van Kruchten R, Luiken JJ, Cosemans JM, Glatz JF, Kuijpers MJ, Heemskerk JW. 2011. Signaling role of CD36 in platelet activation and thrombus formation on immobilized thrombospondin or oxidized lowdensity lipoprotein. J Thromb Haemost., 9(9): 1835-1846. doi:10.1111/j.1538-7836.2011.04416.x.
Newgard Christopher B. 2012. Interplay between lipids and branched-chain amino acids in development of insulin resistance. Cell Metabolism., 15(5): 606-614. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2012.01.024.
Oz F, Yuzer MO. 2016. The effects of cooking on wire and stone barbecue at different cooking levels on the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in beef steak. Food Chemistry., 203: 59-66. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.02.041.
Pal, S, Radavelli-Bagatini S. 2013. The effects of whey protein on cardiometabolic risk factors. Obes Rev., 14(4): 324-343. doi:10.1111/obr.12005.
Patil P, Mandal S, Tomar SK, Anand S. 2015. Food proteinderived bioactive peptides in management of type 2 diabetes. Eur J Nutr., 54(6): 863-880. doi:10.1007/s00394- 015-0974-2.
Perk J, De Backer G, Gohlke H, Graham I, Reiner Z, Verschuren M, Albus C, Benlian P, Boysen G, Cifkova R, Deaton C, Ebrahim S, Fisher M, Germano G, Hobbs R, Hoes A, Karadeniz S, Mezzani A, Prescott E, Ryden L, Scherer M, Syvanne M, Scholte op Reimer WJ, Vrints C, Wood D, Zamorano JL, Zannad F. 2012. European Guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice (version 2012). The fifth joint task force of the european society of cardiology and other societies on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice (constituted by representatives of nine societies and by invited experts). Eur Heart J., 33(13): 1635-1701. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs092.
Pernow J, Jung C. 2013. Arginase as a potential target in the treatment of cardiovascular disease: reversal of arginine steal? Cardiovascular Research., 98(3): 334-343. doi:10.1093/cvr/cvt036.
Pingitore A, Chen Y, Gerdes AM, Iervasi G. 2011. Acute myocardial infarction and thyroid function: New pathophysiological and therapeutic perspectives. Annals of Medicine., 44(8): 745-757. doi:10.3109/ 07853890.2011.573501.
Polet F, Feron O. 2013. Endothelial cell metabolism and tumour angiogenesis: glucose and glutamine as essential fuels and lactate as the driving force. Journal of Internal Medicine., 273(2): 156-165. doi:10.1111/joim.12016.
Poloni S, Blom H, Schwartz I. 2015. Stearoyl-CoA desaturase1: Is it the link between sulfur amino acids and lipid metabolism? Biology., 4(2): 383-396. doi:10.3390/ biology4020383.
Popolo A, Adesso S, Pinto A, Autore G, Marzocco S. 2014. LArginine and its metabolites in kidney and cardiovascular disease. Amino Acids., 46(10): 2271-2286. doi:10.1007/ s00726-014-1825-9.
Qin XF, Zhao LS, Chen WR, Yin da W, Wang H. 2015. Effects of vitamin D on plasma lipid profiles in statin-treated patients with hypercholesterolemia: A randomized placebocontrolled trial. Clin Nutr., 34(2): 201-206. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2014.04.017
Rabelo LA, Ferreira FO, Nunes-Souza V, Fonseca LJS, Goulart MOF. 2015. Arginase as a critical prooxidant mediator in the binomial endothelial dysfunction-atherosclerosis. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity., 2015: 1-12. doi:10.1155/2015/9248.
Ramos KS, Moorthy B. 2008. Bioactivation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon carcinogens within the vascular wall: Implications for human atherogenesis. Drug Metabolism Reviews., 37(4): 595-610. doi:10.1080 /03602530500251253.
Rice BH, Cifelli CJ, Pikosky MA, Miller GD. 2011. Dairy components and risk factors for cardiometabolic syndrome: recent evidence and opportunities for future research. Adv Nutr., 2(5): 396-407. doi:10.3945/an.111.000646.
Richter CK, Skulas-Ray AC, Champagne CM, Kris-Etherton PM. 2015. Plant protein and animal proteins: do they differentially affect cardiovascular disease risk? Adv Nutr., 6(6): 712-728. doi:10.3945/an.115.009654.
Roman M, Jitaru P, Barbante C. 2014. Selenium biochemistry and its role for human health. Metallomics., 6(1): 25-54. doi:10.1039/c3mt00185g.
Romero M, Platt D, Caldwell R, Caldwell W. 2006. Therapeutic use of citrulline in cardiovascular disease. Cardiovascular Drug Reviews., 24(3-4): 275–290.
Rose AH, Hoffmann PR. 2014. Selenoproteins and cardiovascular stress. Thrombosis and Haemostasis., 113(3): 494-504. doi:10.1160/th14-07-0603.
Ruiz Ruiz J, Betancur Ancona D, Segura Campos M. 2014. Bioactive vegetable proteins and peptides in lipid-lowering; nutraceutical potential. Nutr Hosp., 29: 776-784. doi:10.3305/nh.2014.29.4.7208.
Ryan JT, Ross RP, Bolton D, Fitzgerald GF, Stanton C. 2011. Bioactive peptides from muscle sources: meat and fish. Nutrients., 3(9): 765-791. doi:10.3390/nu3090765.
Sacks FM, Lichtenstein A, Van Horn L, Harris W, Kris-Etherton P, Winston M. 2006. Soy protein, isoflavones, and cardiovascular health: An American Heart Association Science Advisory for Professionals From the Nutrition Committee. Circulation., 113(7): 1034-1044. doi:10.1161/circulationaha.106.171052.
Saita KK, Momiyama Y. 2015. Anti-Inflammatory diet for atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease: Antioxidant foods. Clinical Medicine Insights: Cardiology., 8: 61. doi:10.4137/cmc.s17071.
Salehi-Abargouei A, Maghsoudi Z, Shirani F, Azadbakht L. 2013. Effects of dietary approaches to stop hypertension (DASH)-style diet on fatal or nonfatal cardiovascular diseases--incidence: a systematic review and meta-analysis on observational prospective studies. Nutrition., 29(4): 611- 618. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2012.12.018.
Schaffer SW, Ju Jong C, Kc R, Azuma J. 2010. Physiological roles of taurine in heart and muscle. Journal of Biomedical Science., 17(Suppl 1): S2. doi:10.1186/1423-0127-17-s1-s2.
Schaffer SW, Shimada K, Jong CJ, Ito T, Azuma J, Takahashi K. 2014. Effect of taurine and potential interactions with caffeine on cardiovascular function. Amino Acids., 46(5): 1147-1157. doi:10.1007/s00726-014-1708-0.
Schwingshackl L, Hoffmann G. 2013. Long-term effects of lowfat diets either low or high in protein on cardiovascular and metabolic risk factors: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Nutrition Journal., 12(48).
Selcen Salmanoglu D, Gurpinar T, Vural K, Ekerbicer N, Darıverenli E, Var A. 2016. Melatonin and L-carnitin improves endothelial disfunction and oxidative stress in Type 2 diabetic rats. Redox Biology., 8: 199-204. doi:10.1016/j.redox.2015.11.007.
Seldin MM, Meng Y, Qi H, Zhu W, Wang Z, Hazen SL, Lusis AJ, Shih DM. 2016. Trimethylamine N‐oxide promotes vascular inflammation through signaling of mitogen‐ activated protein kinase and nuclear factor‐κB. Journal of the American Heart Association., 5(2): e002767. doi:10.1161/jaha.115.002767.
Semba RD, Gebauer SK, Baer DJ, Sun K, Turner R, Silber HA, Talegawkar S, Ferrucci L, Novotny JA. 2014. Dietary intake of advanced glycation end products did not affect endothelial function and inflammation in healthy adults in a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Nutrition. 144(7): 1037-1042. doi:10.3945/jn.113.189480.
Sharif Kashani B, Tahmaseb Pour P, Malekmohammad M, Behzadnia N, Sheybani-Afshar F, Fakhri M, Chaibakhsh S, Naghashzadeh F, Aidenlou S. 2014. Oral l-citrulline malate in patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension and Eisenmenger Syndrome: a clinical trial. J Cardiol., 64(3), 231-235. doi:10.1016/j.jjcc.2014.01.003.
Shay CM, Gooding HS, Murillo R, Foraker R. 2015. Understanding and improving cardiovascular health: An update on the American Heart Association's Concept of cardiovascular health. Prog Cardiovasc Dis., 58(1): 41-49. doi:10.1016/j.pcad.2015.05.003.
Stubbs JR, House JA, Ocque AJ, Zhang S, Johnson C, Kimber C, Schmidt K, Gupta A, Wetmore JB, Nolin TD, Spertus JA, Yu AS. 2015. Serum trimethylamine-N-oxide is elevated in CKD and correlates with coronary atherosclerosis burden. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology., 27(1): 305- 313. doi:10.1681/asn.2014111063.
Sun H, Lu G, Ren S, Chen J, Wang Y. 2011. Catabolism of branched-chain amino acids in heart failure: Insights from genetic models. Pediatric Cardiology., 32(3): 305-310. doi:10.1007/s00246-010-9856-9.
Tahavorgar A, Vafa M, Shidfar F, Gohari M, Heydari I. 2015. Beneficial effects of whey protein preloads on some cardiovascular diseases risk factors of overweight and obese men are stronger than soy protein preloads – A randomized clinical trial. Journal of Nutrition & Intermediary Metabolism., 2(3-4): 69-75. doi:10.1016/j.jnim.2015.08.002.
Tamanna N, Mahmood N. 2015. Food processing and maillard reaction products: Effect on human health and nutrition. International Journal of Food Science., 2015: 1-6. doi:10.1155/2015/526762.
Tang WHW, Hazen SL. 2014. The contributory role of gut microbiota in cardiovascular disease. Journal of Clinical Investigation., 124(10): 4204-4211. doi:10.1172/jci72331.
Tang WHW, Wang Z, Kennedy DJ, Wu Y, Buffa JA, AgatisaBoyle B, Li XS, Levison BS, Hazen SL. 2014. Gut microbiota-dependent trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) pathway contributes to both development of renal insufficiency and mortality risk in chronic kidney disease. Circulation Research., 116(3): 448-455. doi:10.1161/circresaha.116.305360.
Tantini B, Fiumana E, Cetrullo S, Pignatti C, Bonavita F, Shantz LM, Giordano E, Muscari C, Flamigni F, Guarnieri C. 2006. Involvement of polyamines in apoptosis of cardiac myoblasts in a model of simulated ischemia. Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology., 40(6): 775-782. doi:10.1016/j.yjmcc.2006.03.002.
Tessier FJ, Birlouez-Aragon I. 2010. Health effects of dietary Maillard reaction products: the results of ICARE and other studies. Amino Acids., 42(4): 1119-1131. doi:10.1007/s00726-010-0776-z.
van Dijk SC, Enneman AW, Swart KMA, van Wijngaarden JP, Ham AC, Brouwer-Brolsma EM, van der Zwaluw NL, Blom HJ, Feskens EJ, Geleijnse JM, van Schoor NM, DhonuksheRutten RAM, de Jongh RT, Lips P, de Groot LCPGM,
Uitterlinden AG, Smulders YM, van den Meiracker AH, Mattace Raso FUS, van der Velde N. 2015. Effects of 2-year vitamin B12 and folic acid supplementation in hyperhomocysteinemic elderly on arterial stiffness and cardiovascular outcomes within the B-PROOF trial. Journal of Hypertension., 33(9): 1897-1906. doi:10.1097/hjh.0000000000000647.
van Tienhoven-Wind L, Dullaart R. 2015. Low-normal thyroid function and novel cardiometabolic biomarkers. Nutrients., 7(2): 1352-1377. doi:10.3390/nu7021352.
van Zanten AR. 2015. Glutamine and antioxidants: status of their use in critical illness. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care., 18(2): 179-186. doi:10.1097/MCO.0000000000000152. Vinknes KJ, Dekker JM, Drevon CA, Refsum H, Nurk E, Nijpels G, Stehouwer CDA, Teerlink T, Tell GS, Nygård O, Vollset SE, Ueland PM, Elshorbagy AK. 2013. Plasma sulfur amino acids and stearoyl-CoA desaturase activity in two caucasian populations. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids (PLEFA)., 89(5): 297-303. doi:10.1016/j.plefa.2013.09.007.
Wang W, Wu Z, Dai Z, Yang Y, Wang J, Wu G. 2013. Glycine metabolism in animals and humans: implications for nutrition and health. Amino Acids., 45(3): 463-477. doi:10.1007/s00726-013-1493-1.
Wang Z, Klipfell E, Bennett BJ, Koeth R, Levison BS, DuGar B, Feldstein AE, Britt EB, Fu X, Chung YM, Wu Y, Schauer P, Smith JD, Allayee H, Tang WHW, DiDonato JA, Lusis AJ, Hazen SL. 2011. Gut flora metabolism of phosphatidylcholine promotes cardiovascular disease. Nature., 472(7341): 57-63. doi:10.1038/nature09922. WHO. 2014. Global Status Report on NoncommunicableDiseases.
http://www.who.int/nmh/publications/ncd-status-report2014/en/, (erişim tarihi: 13.06.2016).
WHO. 2015. Health in 2015 from Millennium Development to Sustainable Development Goal.
http://www.who.int/gho/publications/mdgs-sdgs/en/, (erişim tarihi: 13.06.2016).
Wilson A, McLean C, Kim RB. 2016. Trimethylamine-N-oxide. Current Opinion in Lipidology., 27(2): 148-154. doi:10.1097/mol.0000000000000274.
Yang Y, Wu Z, Meininger CJ, Wu G. 2015. l-Leucine and NOmediated cardiovascular function. Amino Acids., 47(3): 435-447. doi:10.1007/s00726-014-1904-y.
Yu Z, Yin Y, Zhao W, Chen F, Liu J. 2014. Application and bioactive properties of proteins and peptides derived from hen eggs: opportunities and challenges. J Sci Food Agric., 94(14): 2839-2845. doi:10.1002/jsfa.6670.
Zambrowicz A, Dąbrowska A, Bobak L, Szołtysik M. 2014. Egg yolk proteins and peptides with biological activity. Postepy Hig Med Dosw., 68: 1524-1529.
Zeeshan H, Lee G, Kim HR, Chae HJ. 2016. Endoplasmic reticulum stress and associated ROS. International Journal of Molecular Sciences., 17(3): 327. doi:10.3390/ijms17030327.
Zhu W, Gregory Jill C, Org E, Buffa Jennifer A, Gupta N, Wang Z, Li L, Fu X, Wu Y, Mehrabian M, Sartor RB, McIntyre Thomas M, Silverstein Roy L, Tang WHW, DiDonato Joseph A, Brown JM, Lusis Aldons J, Hazen Stanley L. 2016. Gut microbial metabolite TMAO enhances platelet hyperreactivity and thrombosis risk. Cell., 165(1): 111-124. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2016.02.011.
Zulli A. 2011. Taurine in cardiovascular disease. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care., 14(1): 57-60. doi:10.1097/MCO.0b013e328340d863.
Zuo H, Ueland PM, Ulvik A, Eussen SJPM, Vollset SE, Nygård O, Midttun Ø, Theofylaktopoulou D, Meyer K, Tell GS. 2016. Plasma biomarkers of inflammation, the kynurenine pathway, and risks of all-cause, cancer, and cardiovascular disease mortality. American Journal of Epidemiology., 183(4): 249-258. doi:10.1093/aje/kwv242.