Zorbalar kurbanlar ve çocukluk imgeleri

Bu çalışmanın konusunu, zorbalık ve kötülük arası ilişki oluşturmaktadır. Çocuklar dünyasında inşa edilen ve failleri ile kurbanlarının çocuklar olduğu zorbalık, güçlü çocukların zayıf çocuklara zarar verme amacı ile uyguladıkları niyetli zorba eylemleri içeren bir olguya işaret etmektedir. Eğer zorba çocuklar kötü bir çocukluk imgesini üreten fail çocuklarsa ve zorbalık kötü bir eylem biçimi ise kötülük ile zorbalığın hangi noktalarda ilişkilendirilebilece- ğini ortaya koymak bu çalışmanın amacını oluşturmaktadır. Zorbalığın kötü olduğuna ilişkin bir önyargımız olmakla birlikte bu çalışma, kötülük gibi bir kavramı zorba çocuklarla kolayca veya taken-for-granted biçimde özdeşleştirmeme kaygısıyla oluşturulmuştur. Bir başka deyiş- le zorba çocukları kötülük ve kötü kavramlarının sınırları içine mutlak biçimde hapsetmeme gerekliliğine ilişkin bir hassasiyeti taşımaktadır. Zorbalığın ve zorbalık üzerinden üretilen kötülüğün sosyal bir etkileşim ağı oluşu, zorbalar ve kötülük arası ilişkinin karmaşık, değiş- ken ve göreli olmasına yol açmakta, kolaycı açıklamaların tuzağına düşme riskine karşı uyarı niteliğini barındırmaktadır. Çalışma, zorbalığın üç önemli karakteristiği olan amaçlılık, asimetrik güç ve süreklilik kriterleri ile zorbaların kurbanları iken daha sonra kendileri de birer zorba haline gelen proaktif kurbanlar temelinde ele alınmıştır.

Bullies, victims and childhood images

The subject of this study is the relationship between bullying and the evil. Bullying is constructed in a children world where children are both the victims and the perpetrators of bullying. Bullying indicates malicious actions applied by strong children to weak kids with a purpose of harming. If bullies are the perpetrator children who create evil childhood image, and if bullying is a bad form of action, the aim of this study is to show how we can make a relation between evil and bullying. Although we have a bias that bullying is bad, this study bears in mind the concern not to label the bullying children as evil easily or stereotypically. In other words, this study argues that bullying children are not necessarly supposed to be defined within the concept of evil. As bullying and evil generated through bullying is a social interaction network, the relation between the bullies and evil is a complex, variable and relative one, thus this is a warning for the researches not fall into the trap of easy and taken-for-granted explanations. As a result this study focuses on proactive victims who were once the victims of bullying but then have become bullies themselves based on three important characteristics of bullying, that is to say intentionality, asymmetric power and sustainability.

___

Alexander, Jeffrey C. (2001) Getting Beyond Modernist Common Sense About the Alternative to the Good, Rethinking Evil: Contemporary Perspectives, ed. Maria Pia Lara, 153-172, University of California Press.

Arıès, Philippe (1962) Centuries of Childhood, A Social History of Family Life, New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Bauman, Zygmunt (2001) Bireyselleşmiş Toplum, çev. Yavuz Alogan, İstanbul: Ayrıntı.

Bee, Helen ve Denise Boyd (2009) Çocuk Gelişim Psikolojisi, çev. Okhan Gündüz, İstanbul: Kaknüs.

Bernsteın, Richard (2010) Radikal Kötülük, Bir Felsefi Sorgulama, çev. Nil Erdoğan, Filiz Deniztekin, İstanbul: Varlık.

Best, Joel (1990) Threatened Children:Rhetoric and Concern About Child-Victims, The University of Chicago Press.

Card, A. Noel, Ernest V.E. Hodges (2008) Peer Victimization Among School Children: Correlations, Causes, Consequences and Considerations in Assessment and Intervention, School Psychology Quarterly, Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 451-461.

Card, A. Noel, Ernest V.E. Hodges (2007) Victimization Within Mutually Anthipathetic Peer Relations, Social Development,Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 479-496.

Cevizci, Ahmet (1996) Felsefe Sözlüğü, Ankara: Ekin.

Cushman, Thomas (2001) The Reflexivity of Evil, Evil After Postmodernism, Histories, Narratives and Ethics, ed. J. Geddes, Routledge.

Davidson, Julia OConnell (2005) Children in the Global Sex Trade, UK: Polity.

De Lara, Ellen (2006) Bullying and Violence in American Schools Handbook of Children, Culture and Violence, ed. Nancy E. David, Dorothy G. Singer, Robin F. Wilson, pp. 333- 354, USA:Sage.

Dodge, Kenneth A. ve John D. Coie (1987) Social-information-processing Factors in Reactive and Proactive Aggression in Children's Peer Groups, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 53 (6), pp. 1146-1158.

Duncan, Neil (1999) Sexual Bullying, Gender Conflict and Pupil Culture in Secondary Schools, London: Routledge.

Dupper, David R. (2013) School Bullying, New Perspectives on a Growing Problem, Oxford University Press.

Eiss, Harry (1994) Preface, Images of The Child, edit. Harry Eiss, Bowling Green State University Popular Press.

Elkind, David (1999) Çocuk ve Toplum, çev. Demet Öngen, Ankara: A.Ü. ÇOKAUM.

Englander, Elizabeth K. (2003) Understanding Violence, London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Espelage, Dorothy L. (2013) Bullying and Sexual Violence, Definition, Prevalence, Outcomes and Moderators, edit.Ian Rivers, Neil Duncan, Bullying, Experiences and Discourses of Sexuality and Gender, edit.Neil Duncan, 31-40, Routledge.

Espelage, Dorothy L. ve Susan M. Swearer (2010) A Social-Ecological Model for Bullying Prevention and Intervention: Understanding the Impact of Adults in the Social Ecology of Youngsters , Handbook of Bullying in Schools: An International Perspective, ed. Shane R. Jimerson, Susan M. Swearer, Dorothy L. Espelage, 61-72, NY: Routledge.

Espelage, Dorothy L., Melissa K. Holt (2001) Bullying and Victimization: During Early Adolescence: Peer Influences and Psychosocial Correlates, Journal of Emotional Abuse, Vol. 2, No. 2/3, pp. 123-142.

Fass, Paula (2004) Images of Childhood, Encyclopedia of Children and Childhood in History and Society, Volume 1, A-E, 449-463, USA: Thompson-Gale.

Felıx, Erika D. ve Jennifer G. Green (2010) Popular Girls and Browny Boys, Handbook of Bullying in Schools, An International Perspective, edit.Shane R.Jimerson, Susan Swearer, Dorothy Espelage, 173-185, UK: Routledge.

Finkelhor, David, Jennifer Dziuba-Leatherman (1994), Children as Victims of Violence: A National Survey, Pediatrics, Vol. 94, No. 4, 413-420.

Finkelhor, David, Richard K. Ormrod, Heather A. Turner (2007) Polvictimization: A Neglected Component in Child Victimization, Child Abuse & Neglect, Vol. 31, No. 1, 7-26.

Freud, Sigmund (1962) Cinsiyet Üzerine Üç Deneme, çev. Ali A.Öneş, İstanbul: Yeni Matbaa.

Freud, Sigmund (1994) Psikanalize Yeni Giriş Dersleri, Ankara: Öteki.

----- (1999) Uygarlığın Huzursuzluğu, çev. Saffet Murat Tuna, İstanbul: Metis. Gander, Mary ve Harry W. Gardiner (2001) Çocuk ve Ergen Gelişimi, çev. A. Dönmez, N. Çelen, B. Onur, Ankara: İmge. Gifford, Clive (2009) Child Labor, London: Evans Brothers. Gittins, Diana (2009) The Historical Construction of Childhood, An Introduction to Childhood Studies, second edition, ed. Mary Jane Kehily, pp. 35-49, UK: Mc Graw Hill. Goffman, Erving (1959) Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, NY: Anchor. Goldbaum, Suzanne, Wendy M. Craig, Debra Pepler, Jennifer Connolly (2003), Developmental Trajectories of Victimization: Identifying Risk and Protective Factors, Bullying, Peer Harassment, and Victimization in the Schools: The Next Generation of Prevention, ed. Maurice J. Elias, Joseph E. Zins, pp. 139-157, USA: The Haworth Press. Graham, Sandra, Amy Bellmore, Jaana Juvonen (2003) Peer Victimization in Middle School: When Self- and Peer Views Diverge, Journal of Applied School Psychology, Vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 117-137. Graham, Sandra, Amy D. Bellmore, Jennifer Mize (2006) Peer Victimization, Aggression and Their Co-Occurence in Middle School: Pathways to Adjustment Problems, Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 363-378. Harris, Sandra ve Garth F. Petrie (2003) Bullying: the Bullies, the Victims, the Bystanders, USA: Scarecrow Education. Hartup, Willard W. (1974) Aggression in Childhood: Developmental Perspectives, American Psychologist, Vol. 29 (5), pp. 336-341. Helander, Einar (2008) Children and Violence: The World of the Defenceless, UK: Palgrave. Heywood, Colin (2009) A Brief Historiography of Child Labor, The World of Child Labor, An Historical and Regional Survey, edit. Hugh H. Hindman, 18-25, USA: M.E. Sharpe. Holt, Melissa K. ve Dorothy L. Espelage (2003) A Cluster Analytic Investigation of Victimization Among High School Students: Are Profiles Differentially Associated with sychological Symptoms and School Belonging? Bullying, Peer Harassment, and Victimization in the Schools: The Next Generation of Prevention, ed. Maurice J. Elias, Joseph E. Zins, pp. 81-99, The Haworth Press, USA. İnal, Kemal (2007) Türkiyede Çocukluk: Nereye?, Modernizm ve Çocuk: Geleneksel, Modern ve Postmodern Çocukluk İmgeleri, 121-146, Ankara: Sobil. Jackson, Louise A. (2000) Child Sexual Abuse in Victorian England, UK: Polity. James, Allison ve Adrian James (2012) Key Concepts in Childhood Studies, UK: Sage. Jenks, Chris (1996) Childhood. London: Routledge. Kant, Immanuel (2000) Fragmanlar, çev. Oruç Aruoba, İstanbul: Altıkırkbeş. Kochenderfer-Ladd, Becky ve Gary W. Ladd (2010) A Child-by-Enviroment Framework for Planning Interventions with Children Involved in Bullying, Preventing and Treating Bullying and Victimization, ed. Erich M. Vernberg, Bridget K. Biggs, pp. 45-74, NY: Oxford University Press. Limber, Susan (2006) Peer Victimization: The Nature and Prevalence of Bullying Among Children and Youth Handbook of Children, Culture and Violence, ed. Nancy E. David, Dorothy G. Singer, Robin F. Wilson, pp. 313-332, USA:Sage. Macklem, Gayle L. (2003) Bullying and Teasing: Social Power in Children's Groups, NY: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.

Macneil, Gordon (2002) School Bullying: An Overwiew, Handbook of Violence, ed. Lisa A. Rapp-Paglicci, Albert R. Roberts, John S. Wodarski, pp. 247-261, NY: John Wiley&Sons Inc. Madrinan,Carmen (2009) Worst Forms of Child Labour: Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children, The World of Child Labor, edit. Hugh D. Hindman, 95-101, NY: M.E. Sharpe. Meyer, Birgit (2008) Images of Evil in Popular Ghanaian Christianity, Coping With Evil in Religion and Culture, edit. Nelly van Doom-Harder, Lourens Minnema, 9-23, Netherlands. Montgomery, Heather (2011) Child Prostitution, Slavery in the Modern World: A History of Political, Social and Economic Oppression, 187-191, edit. Junius P. Rodriguez, USA: ABC- CLIO. Nansel, T. R., D. L. Haynie, B. G. Simons-Morton (2003), The Association of Bullying and Victimization with Middle School Adjustment, Bullying, Peer Harassment, and Victimization in the Schools: The Next Generation of Prevention, ed. Maurice J. Elias, Joseph E. Zins, pp.45-59, USA:The Haworth Press. Neustadter, Roger (1992) An End To 'Childhood Amnesia'; The Utopian Ideal of Childhood in Critical Theory, Mid-American Review of Sociology, 16 (2): 71-80. Olweus, Dan (1993) Bullying at School: What we know and what we can do, USA: Blackwell Publishing. ----- (1995) Bullying or Peer Abuse at School: Facts and Intervention, Current Directions in Psychological Science, Vol. 4, No. 6, pp.196-200. ----- (2003) A Profile of Bullying, Educational Leadership, Vol. 60, No. 6, pp. 12-17. ----- (2010) Understanding and Researching Bullying: Some Critical Issues, Handbook of Bullying in Schools: An International Perspective, ed.Shane R. Jimerson, Susan M. Swearer, Dorothy L. Espelage, pp. 9-33, NY:Routledge. Paul, Jennifer J. and Antonius H. N. Cillessen (2003) Dynamics of Peer Victimization in Early Adolescence: Results from a Four-Year Longitudinal Study, Journal of Applied School Psychology, Vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 25-43. Pellegrını, Anthony D. (2002) Bullying, Victimization, and Sexual Harassment During the Transition to Middle School, Educational Psychologist, 37 (3), 151-163. Pifer, Ellen (2000) Demon or Doll: Images of the Child in Contemporary Writing and Culture, USA: The University Press. Postman, Neil (1995) Çocukluğun Yokoluşu, çev. Kemal İnal, Ankara: İmge. Poulin, François ve Michel Boivin (2000) Reactive and Proactive Aggression: Evidence of a Two-Factor Model, Psychological Assessment, Vol. 12 (2), 115-122. Price, Joseph M. ve Kenneth A.Dodge (1989) Reactive and Proactive Aggression in Childhood: Relations to Peer Status and Social Context Dimensions, Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, Vol. 17 (4), pp. 455-471. Prout, Alan (2005) Future of Childhood: Towards the interdisciplinary study of children, Routledge&Falmer. Qvortrup, Jens (2005) Varieties of Childhood, Studies in Modern Childhood, Jens Qvortrup (ed.), pp.1-20, Palgrave UK. Rigby, Ken (2002) New Perspectives on Bullying, London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Rigby, Ken (2008) Children and Bullying, How Parents and Educators Can Reduce Bullying at School, USA: Blackwell Publishing. Ritzer, George (2011) Modern Sosyoloji Kuramları, çev. Himmet Hülür, Ankara: De Ki.

Salmivalli,Christina ve Eija Nieminen (2002) Proactive and Reactive Aggression Among School Bullies, Victims and Bully-Victims, Aggressive Behavior, Vol. 28, pp. 30-44. Salmivalli,Christina ve Katlin Peets (2011) Bullies, Victims and Bully-Victim Relationships in Middle Childhood and Early Adolescence, Handbook of Peer Interactions, Relationships and Groups, edit. Kenneth H. Rubin, William M. Bukowski, Brett Laursen, 322-340, NY: Guilford Press. Schutz, Alfred (1967) The Phenomenology of the Social World, USA: Northwestern University Press. Schwartz, David, Brynn M. Kelly, Mylien T. Duong, Daryaneh Badaly (2010) A Contextual Perspective on Intervention and Prevention Efforts for Bully/Victim Problems, Preventingand Treating Bullying and Victimization, ed.Erich M. Vernberg, Bridget K. Biggs, pp. 17- 44, NY: Oxford University Press. Schwartz, David, Kenneth A. Dodge, John D. Coie, Julie A.Hubbard, Antonius H.N.Cillessen, Elizabeth A. Lemerie, Helen Bateman (1998) Social-cognitive and Behavioral Correlates of Aggression and Victimization in Boys' Play Groups, Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, Vol. 26 (6), pp. 331-440. Sıjtsema, Jelle, Rene Veenstra, Siegwart Lindenberg, Christina Salmivalli (2008) Empirical Test of Bullies Status Goals: Assessing Direct Goals, Aggression and Prestige, Aggressive Behavior, Vol. 35, issue 1, 57-67. Standfort, Theo G. M. ve Jany Rademakers (2013) Introduction, Childhood Sexuality: Nor- mal Sexual Behavior and Development, ed. Theo G. M. Standfort, Jany Rademakers, 1-5, The Haworth Press. Stein, Nan (1995) Sexual Harassment in School: The Public Performance of Gendered Violence, Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 65, No. 2, pp. 29-46. ----- (2000) Sexual Harassment in School, Psychology of Education, edit. Peter K. Smith, A. D. Pellegrini, 593-614, Routledge. ----- (2011a) Sexual Harassment overview paper for Gender Violence Summit, National Summit on Gender-Based Violence Among Young People: Reading Materials, www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osdfs/gbvreading.pdf ----- (2011b) Sexual Harassment in School: The Public Performance of Gendered Violence, National Summit on Gender-Based Violence Among Young People: Reading Materials, www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osdfs/gbvreading.pdf Stephens, Tina ve Jane Hallas (2006) Bullying and Sexual Harassment, UK: Chandos Publishing. Storch, Eric A. and Deborah R. Ledley (2005) Peer Victimization and Psychosocial Adjustment in Children: Current Knowledge and Future Directions, Clinical Pediatrics, Vol. 44, No. 1, pp. 29-38. Strauss, Susan (2012) Sexual Harassment and Bullying: A Guide to Keeping Kids Safe and Holding Schools Accountable, Rowman&Littlefield Publishers. Sullivan, Terri N. Sullivan, Albert D. Farrell, Wendy Kliewer (2006), Peer Victimization in Early Adolescence: Association Betweeen Physical and Relational Victimization and Drug Use, Aggression and Delinquent Behaviors among Urban Middle School Students, Development and Psychopathology, 18, pp. 119-137. Sullivan, Daniel ve Jeff Greenberg (2013) Monstrous Children as Harbingers of Mortality: A Psychological Analysis of Doris Lessings The Fifth Child, The Evil Child in Literature, Film and Popular Culture, ed. Karen J. Renner, 45-65, Routledge. Svendsen, Lars Fr. (2001) A Philosophy of Evil, Norway: Universitetsforlaget.

Swearer, Susan M. and Paulette Tam Cary (2003) Perception and Attitudes Toward Bullying in Middle School Youth: A Developmental Examination Across the Bully/Victim Continuum, Bullying, Peer Harassment, and Victimization in the Schools: The Next Generation of Prevention, ed. Maurice J. Elias, Joseph E. Zins, USA: The Haworth Press. Swearer, Susan M., Dorothy L. Espelage, Tracy Vaillancourt, Shelley Hymel (2010) What Can Be Done About School Bullying? Linking Research to Educational Practice, Educational Researcher, Vol. 39, No.1, pp. 38-47. Thorne, Barrie (2013) Re-Visioning Women and Social Change: Where Are The Children?, The Global History of Childhood Reader, edit. Heidi Morrison, 21-36, USA: Routledge. Topçu, Sedat (2009) Cinsel İstismar, Ankara: Phoenix. Vernberg, Erich M. and Bridget K. Biggs (2010) Preventing and Treating Bullying and Victimization: An Evidence-Based Approach, Preventing and Treating Bullying and Victimization, ed.Erich M. Vernberg, Bridget K. Biggs, pp. 3-16, NY: Oxford Uni. Press. Weber, Max (1995) Toplumsal ve Ekonomik Örgütlenme Kuramı, çev. Özer Ozankaya, Ankara: İmge. Wells, Karen (2009) Childhood in a Global Perspective, UK: Polity. Williams, Sian (2013) Sexual Bullying in One Local Authority, Bullying, Experiences and Discourses of Sexuality and Gender, ed. Ian Rivers, Neil Duncan, 60-74, Routledge.