Properties, variations, roles, and potential applications of epicuticular wax: a review
The cuticular wax layer covers the aerial surface of plants and acts as a barrier between plants and the environment. The cuticle plays a key role in the protection of plants from pathogens, UV light, and transpiration. Variation in the wax quality and quantity is influenced by factors like the solvent used for extraction, species, ontogeny, and season. Compounds isolated from the cuticle layer have been studied by various methods and were found to play an important role from the ecological and physiological points of view. These compounds include esters, alcohols, ether, alkane, and aldehydes. Nonpolar compounds help reduce water loss in plants. The wax can be explored for its potential applications in developing sustainable green packaging material. This review article will facilitate biologists and nonbiologists to get comprehensive and updated knowledge about various aspects of cuticular wax including its chemical composition and variations among different species and seasons. Further studies of the wax composition will pave the way for classification of plant species and an understanding of plant protection from biotic and abiotic stresses.
___
- Abas MR, Simoneit BRT (1998). Wax lipids from leaf surfaces of
some common plants of Malaysia. Pertanika Journal of Science
& Technology 6: 171-182.
- Ahmed A, Crawford T, Gould S, Ha YS, Hollrah M, Noor-E-Ain
F, Dussault PH (2003). Synthesis of (R)-and (S)-10,16-
dihydroxyhexadecanoic acid: cutin stereochemistry and fungal
activation. Phytochemistry 63: 47-52.
- Andrady AL, Neal MA (2009). Applications and societal benefits of
plastics. Philos T Roy Soc B 364: 1977-1984.
- Asperger A, Engewald W, Fabian G (1999). Analytical characterization
of natural waxes employing pyrolysis–gas chromatography–
mass spectrometry. J Anal Appl Pyrol 50: 103-115.
- Asperger A, Engewald W, Fabian G (2001). Thermally assisted
hydrolysis and methylation–a simple and rapid online
derivatization method for the gas chromatographic analysis of
natural waxes. J Anal Appl Pyrol 61: 91-109.
- Baker EA (1982). Chemistry and morphology of plant epicuticular
waxes. In: Cutler DF, Alvin KL, Price CE, editors. The Plant
Cuticle. New York, NY, USA: Academic Press, pp. 139-165.
- Baldotto LEB, Olivares FL (2008). Phylloepiphytic interaction
between bacteria and different plant species in a tropical
agricultural system. Can J Microbiol 54: 918-931.
- Barnes DK, Galgani F, Thompson RC, Barlaz M (2009). Accumulation
and fragmentation of plastic debris in global environments.
Philos T Roy Soc B 364: 1985-1998.
- Barthlott W, Neinhuis C (1997). Purity of the sacred lotus, or escape
from contamination in biological surfaces. Planta 202: 1-8.
- Batovska DI, Todorova IT, Popov SS (2009). Seasonal variations in
the leaf surface composition of field grown grapevine plants. J
Serb Chem Soc 74: 1229-1240.
- Beattie, GA, Marcell LM (2002). Effect of alterations in cuticular
wax biosynthesis on the physicochemical properties and
topography of maize leaf surfaces. Plant Cell Environ 25: 1-16.
- Belding RD, Sutton TB, Blankenship SM, Young E (2000).
Relationship between apple fruit epicuticular wax and growth
of
Peltaster fructicola
and
Leptodontidium elatius
, two fungi
that cause sooty blotch disease. Plant Dis 84: 767-772.
- Bhushan B, Jung YC (2008). Wetting, adhesion and friction of
superhydrophobic and hydrophilic leaves and fabricated micro/
nanopatterned surfaces. J Phys-Condens Mat 20: 225010.
- Bianchi G (1995). Plant waxes. In: Hamilton RJ, editor. Waxes:
Chemistry, Molecular Biology and Functions. Dundee, UK:
Oily Press, pp. 175-222.
- Braccini CL, Vega AS, Aroz MVC, Teal PE, Cerrillo T, Zavala JA,
Fernandez PC (2015). Both volatiles and cuticular plant
compounds determine oviposition of the willow sawfly
Nematus oligospilus
on leaves of
Salix spp.
(Salicaceae). J Chem
Ecol 41: 985-996.
- Brinton WF Jr (2005). Characterization of man-made foreign matter
and its presence in multiple size fractions from mixed waste
composting. Compost Sci Util 13: 274-280.
- Buschhaus C, Herz H, Jetter R (2007a). Chemical composition of the
epicuticular and intracuticular wax layers on adaxial sides of
Rosa canina
leaves. Ann Bot London 100: 1557-1564.
- Buschhaus C, Herz H, Jetter R (2007b). Chemical composition of the
epicuticular and intracuticular wax layers on the adaxial side of
Ligustrum vulgare
leaves. New Phytol 176: 311-316.
- Buschhaus C, Jetter R (2012). Composition and physiological
function of the wax layers coating
Arabidopsis
leaves: β-amyrin
negatively affects the intracuticular water barrier. Plant
Physiol 160: 1120-1129.
- Cameron KD, Teece MA, Bevilacqua E, Smart LB (2002). Diversity of
cuticular wax among
Salix
species and
Populus
species hybrids.
Phytochemistry 60: 715-725.
- Cameron KD, Teece MA, Smart LB (2006). Increased accumulation
of cuticular wax and expression of lipid transfer protein
in response to periodic drying events in leaves of tree
tobacco. Plant Physiol 140: 176-183.
- Carver TLW, Gurr SJ (2006). Filamentous fungi on plant surfaces.
In: Riederer M, Muller C, editors. Biology of the Plant Cuticle.
Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 368-397.
- Carver TLW, Thomas BJ, Ingeerson‐Morris SM, Roderick HW
(1990). The role of the abaxial leaf surface waxes of
Lolium
spp.
in resistance to
Erysiphe graminis
. J Plant Pathol 39: 573-583.
- Casado CG, Heredia A (1999). Structure and dynamics of
reconstituted cuticular waxes of grape berry cuticle (
Vitis
vinifera
). J Exp Bot 50: 175-182.
- Catrow JL, Wing D, DiLella D, Volker E (2009). Gas chromatography
and mass spectroscopy of cuticular and epicuticular waxes of
Arabis serotina
. Shepherd University Journal of Undergraduate
Research 1: 27-35.
- Celano G, D’Auria M, Xiloyannis C, Mauriello G, Baldassarre M
(2006). Composition and seasonal variation of soluble cuticular
waxes in
Actinidia deliciosa
leaves. Nat Prod Res 20: 701-709.
- Cerman Z, Striffler BF, Barthlott W (2009). Dry in the water: the
superhydrophobic water fern Salvinia–a model for biomimetic
surfaces. In: Gorb SN, editor. Functional Surfaces in Biology.
Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Springer, pp. 97-111.
- Chowdhury N, Ghosh A, Bhattacharjee I, Laskar S, Chandra G
(2010). Determination of the n-alkane profile of epicuticular
wax extracted from mature leaves of
Cestrum nocturnum
(Solanaceae: Solanales). Nat Prod Res 24: 1313-1317.
- Conn KL, Tewari JP (1989). Interactions of
Alternaria brassicae
conidia with leaf epicuticular wax of canola. Mycol Res 93:
240-242.
- Cordeiro SZ, Simas NK, de Oliveira Arruda, RDC, Sato A (2011).
Composition of epicuticular wax layer of two species of
Mandevilla
(Apocynoideae, Apocynaceae) from Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil. Biochem Syst Ecol 39: 198-202.
- Daoust SP, Mader BJ, Bauce E, Despland E, Dussutour A, Albert
PJ (2010). Influence of epicuticular-wax composition on the
feeding pattern of a phytophagous insect: implications for host
resistance. Can Entomol 142: 261-270.
- Denna DW (1970). Transpiration and the waxy bloom in
Brassica
oleracea
L. Aust J Biol Sci 23: 27-32.
- Derraik JG (2002). The pollution of the marine environment by
plastic debris: a review. Mar Pollut Bull
44: 842-852.
- Dickman MB, Ha YS, Yang Z, Adams B, Huang C (2003). A protein
kinase from
Colletotrichum trifolii
is induced by plant cutin and
is required for appressorium formation. Mol Plant Microbe In
16: 411-421.
- Domínguez E, Heredia A (1998). Waxes: a forgotten topic in lipid
teaching. Biochem Educ 26: 315-316.
- Dragota S, Riederer M (2007). Epicuticular wax crystals of
Wollemia
nobilis
: morphology and chemical composition.
Ann Bot-
London
100: 225-231.
- Dragota S, Riederer M (2009). Comparative study on epicuticular leaf
waxes of
Araucaria araucana
,
Agathis robusta
and
Wollemia
nobilis.
Aust J Bot 56: 644-650.
- Drelich J, Chibowski E, Meng DD, Terpilowski K (2011). Hydrophilic
and superhydrophilic surfaces and materials.
Soft Matter
7:
9804-9828.
- Dutta M, Laskar S (2009). Hydrocarbons in the surface wax of the
leaves of
Alstonia scholaris
(Linn.) R. Br. Oriental Journal of
Chemistry 25: 437-439.
- Ebercon A, Blum A, Jordan WR (1977). A rapid colorimetric method
for epicuticular wax contest of sorghum leaves.
Crop Sci
17:
179-180.
- Erosa FE, Gamboa-León MR, Lecher JG, Arroyo-Serralta GA,
Zizumbo-Villareal D, Oropeza-Salín C, Peña-Rodríguez LM
(2002). Major components from the epicuticular wax of
Cocos
nucifera
.
Revista de la Sociedad Química de México 46: 247-250.
- Federle W, Maschwitz U, Fiala B, Riederer M, Hölldobler B (1997).
Slippery ant-plants and skilful climbers: selection and protection
of specific ant partners by epicuticular wax blooms in
Macaranga
(Euphorbiaceae). Oecologia 112: 217-224.
- Ficke A, Gadoury DM, Seem RC, Godfrey D, Dry IB (2004). Host
barriers and responses to
Uncinula necator
in developing grape
berries. Phytopathology 94: 438-445.
- Freeman B, Albrigo LG, Biggs RH (1979). Cuticular waxes of
developing leaves and fruit of blueberry,
Vaccinium ashei
Reade
cv. Bluegem
.
J Am Soc Hortic Sci 104: 398-403.
- García S, Heinzen H, Hubbuch C, Martínez R, De Vries X, Moyna
P (1995). Triterpene methyl ethers from Palmae epicuticular
waxes. Phytochemistry 39: 1381-1382.
- Gentry GL, Barbosa P (2006). Effects of leaf epicuticular wax on the
movement, foraging behavior, and attack efficacy of
Diaeretiella
rapae
. Entomol Exp Appl 121: 115-122.
- Gniwotta F, Vogg G, Gartmann V, Carver TL, Riederer M, Jetter R
(2005). What do microbes encounter at the plant surface?
Chemical composition of pea leaf cuticular waxes.
Plant
Physiol 139: 519-530.
- Grncarevic M, Radler F (1967). The effect of wax components on
cuticular transpiration-model experiments. Planta
75: 23-27.
- Grob K, Giuffré AM, Leuzzi U, Mincione B (1994). Recognition of
adulterated oils by direct analysis of the minor components. Eur
J Lipid Sci Tech 96: 286-290.
- Guhling O, Hobl B, Yeats T, Jetter R (2006). Cloning and
characterization of a lupeol synthase involved in the synthesis
of epicuticular wax crystals on stem and hypocotyl surfaces of
Ricinus communis
. Arch Biochem Biophys 448: 60-72.
- Gülz PG, Boor G (1992). Seasonal variations in epicuticular wax
ultrastructures of
Quercus robur
leaves.
Z Naturforsch C 47:
807-814.
- Gülz PG, Müller E, Prasad RBN (1991). Developmental and seasonal
variations in the epicuticular waxes of
Tilia tomentosa
leaves.
Phytochemistry 30: 769-773.
- Guo Y, He Y, Guo N, Gao J, Ni Y (2015). Variations of the composition
of the leaf cuticular wax among Chinese populations of
Plantago
major
. Chem Biodivers 12: 627-636.
- Hall DM, Jones RL (1961). Physiological significance of surface wax
on leaves.
Nature
191: 95-96.
- Hamilton RJ (1995).
Waxes: Chemistry, Molecular Biology and
Functions. Dundee, UK: Oily Press.
- Hietala T, Laakso S, Rosenqvist H (1995). Epicuticular waxes of
Salix
species
in relation to their over wintering survival and biomass
productivity. Phytochemistry 40: 23-27.
- Hietala T, Mozes N, Genet MJ, Rosenqvist H, Laakso S (1997). Surface
lipids and their distribution on willow (
Salix
) leaves: a combined
chemical, morphological and physicochemical study.
Colloids
Surface B 8: 205-215
.
- Hoad SP, Grace J, Jeffree CE (1996). A leaf disc method for measuring
cuticular conductance. J Exp Bot 47: 431-437.
- Inyang EN, Butt TM, Beckett A, Archer S (1999). The effect of crucifer
epicuticular waxes and leaf extracts on the germination and
virulence of
Metarhizium anisopliae
conidia.
Mycol Res
103:
419-426.
- Jeffree CE (1986). The cuticle, epicuticular waxes and trichomes
of plants, with reference to their structure, functions and
evolution. In: Juniper BE, Southwood R, editors. Insects and
The Plant Surface. London, UK: Edward Arnold, pp. 23-64.
- Jeffree CE (2006). The fine structure of the plant cuticle. In: Riederer
M, Muller C, editors. Biology of the Plant Cuticle. Oxford, UK:
Blackwell Publishing, pp. 11-125.
- Jenks MA, Gaston CH, Goodwin MS, Keith JA, Teusink RS, Wood KV
(2002). Seasonal variation in cuticular waxes on
Hosta
genotypes
differing in leaf surface glaucousness.
HortScience
37: 673-677.
- Jenks MA, Tuttle HA, Feldmann KA (1996). Changes in epicuticular
waxes on wildtype and eceriferum mutants in
Arabidopsis
during development. Phytochemistry 42: 29-34.
- Jetter R, Kunst L, Samuels AL (2006). Composition of plant cuticular
waxes. In: Riederer M, Muller C, editors. Biology of the Plant
Cuticle. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 182-215.
- Jetter R, Schäffer S (2001). Chemical composition of the
Prunus
laurocerasus
leaf surface. Dynamic changes of the epicuticular
wax film during leaf development.
Plant Physiol 126: 1725-
1737.
- Jetter R, Schäffer S, Riederer M (2000). Leaf cuticular waxes are
arranged in chemically and mechanically distinct layers:
evidence from
Prunus laurocerasus
L.
Plant Cell Environ 23:
619-628.
- Jetter R, Sodhi R (2011). Chemical composition and microstructure
of waxy plant surfaces: triterpenoids and fatty acid derivatives
on leaves of
Kalanchoe daigremontiana
. Surf Interface Anal 43:
326-330.
- Jones TH, Potts BM, Vaillancourt RE, Davies NW (2002). Genetic
resistance of
Eucalyptus globulus
to autumn gum moth
defoliation and the role of cuticular waxes.
Can J Forest Res
32: 1961-1969.
- Kedar KA, Jadhav RB (2012). Isolation and characterization of
triterpenoids in cuticular wax of leaves of
Helicanthus elasticus
Linn. (Loranthaceae) parasitic on
Memecylon umbellatum
Burm. f. (Melastomataceae). International Journal of Drug
Development and Research 4: 243-251.
- Kerstiens G (1996). Cuticular water permeability and its physiological
significance. J Exp Bot 47: 1813-1832.
- Khan MAU, Shahid AA, Rao AQ, Bajwa KS, Muzaffar A, Rehman
Samiullah T, Husnain T (2016). Molecular and biochemical
characterization of cotton epicuticular wax in defense against
cotton leaf curl disease.
Iranian Journal of Biotechnology 13:
3-9.
- Khan MAU, Shahid AA, Rao AQ, Kiani S, Ashraf MA, Muzaffar
A, Husnain T (2011). Role of epicuticular waxes in the
susceptibility of cotton leaf curl virus (CLCuV).
Afr J
Biotechnol
10: 17868-17874.
- Kim KS, Park SH, Jenks MA (2007). Changes in leaf cuticular waxes
of sesame (
Sesamum indicum
L.) plants exposed to water
deficit. J Plant Physiol 164: 1134-1143.
- Koch K, Barthlott W (2009). Superhydrophobic and superhydrophilic
plant surfaces: an inspiration for biomimetic materials.
Philos
T Roy Soc A 367: 1487-1509.
- Koch K, Bhushan B, Barthlott W (2008). Diversity of structure,
morphology and wetting of plant surfaces.
Soft Matter
4: 1943-
1963.
- Kolattukudy PE (1970). Plant waxes. Lipids
5: 259-275.
- Kolattukudy PE (1980). Biopolyester membranes of plants: cutin and
suberin. Science 208: 990-1000.
- Kolattukudy PE, Rogers LM, Li D, Hwang CS, Flaishman MA (1995).
Surface signaling in pathogenesis.
P Natl Acad Sci USA 92:
4080-4087.
- Kolb CA, Käser MA, Kopecký J, Zotz G, Riederer M, Pfündel
EE (2001). Effects of natural intensities of visible and
ultraviolet radiation on epidermal ultraviolet screening and
photosynthesis in grape leaves. Plant Physiol 27: 863-875.
- Kolb CA, Kopecký J, Riederer M, Pfündel EE (2003). UV screening
by phenolics in berries of grapevine (
Vitis vinifera
).
Funct Plant
Biol 30: 1177-1186.
- Kosma DK, Nemacheck JA, Jenks MA, Williams CE (2010). Changes
in properties of wheat leaf cuticle during interactions with
Hessian fly. Plant J 63: 31-43.
- Krauss P, Markstädter C, Riederer M (1997). Attenuation of UV
radiation by plant cuticles from woody species.
Plant Cell
Environ 20: 1079-1085.
- Kundu S, Sinhababu A (2013). Analysis of n-alkanes in the cuticular
wax of leaves of
Ficus glomerata
.
Journal of Applied and
Natural Science 5: 226-229.
- Latthe SS, Terashima C, Nakata K, Sakai M, Fujishima A (2014).
Development of sol–gel processed semi-transparent and self-
cleaning superhydrophobic coatings.
J Mater Chem A
2: 5548-
5553.
- Lee J, Yang K, Lee M, Kim S, Kim J, Lim S, Jang YS (2015).
Differentiated cuticular wax content and expression patterns
of cuticular wax biosynthetic genes in bloomed and bloomless
broccoli (
Brassica oleracea
). Process Biochem 50: 456-462.
- Lemieux B (1996). Molecular genetics of epicuticular wax
biosynthesis. Trends Plant Sci 1:312-318.
- Li XM, Reinhoudt D, Crego-Calama M (2007). What do we need for
a superhydrophobic surface? A review on the recent progress
in the preparation of superhydrophobic surfaces. Chem Soc
Rev 36: 1350-1368.
- Maffei M (1996). Chemotaxonomic significance of leaf wax alkanes
in the Gramineae. Biochem Syst Ecol 24: 53-64.
- Maiti R, Rodriguez HG, Gonzalez EA, Kumari A, Sarkar NC (2016).
Variability in epicuticular wax in 35 woody plants in Linares,
Northeast Mexico. Forest Res 5: 162.
- Manheim BS, Mulroy TW (1978). Triterpenoids in epicuticular
waxes of
Dudleya
species. Phytochemistry 17: 1799-1800.
- Marcell LM, Beattie GA (2002). Effect of leaf surface waxes on
leaf colonization by
Pantoea agglomerans
and
Clavibacter
michiganensis
. Mol Plant Microbe In 15: 1236-1244.
- Marinach C, Papillon MC, Pepe C (2004). Identification of
binding media in works of art by gas chromatography–mass
spectrometry.
J Cult Herit 5: 231-240.
- Markstadter C, Federle W, Jetter R, Riederer M, Hölldobler B (2000).
Chemical composition of the slippery epicuticular wax blooms
on
Macaranga
(Euphorbiaceae) ant-plants.
Chemoecology
10:
33-40.
- Marmur A (2004). The lotus effect: superhydrophobicity and
metastability. Langmuir 20: 3517-3519.
- Marois JJ, Nelson JK, Morrison JC, Lile LS, Bledsoe AM (1986).
The influence of berry contact within grape clusters on the
development of
Botrytis cinerea
and epicuticular wax.
Am J
Enol Viticult 37: 293-296.
- Martin JT, Juniper BE (1970). The Cuticles of Plants. New York, NY,
USA: St. Martin’s Press.
- Matas AJ, Sanz J, Heredia A (2003). Studies on the structure of
the plant wax nonacosan-10-ol, the main component of
epicuticular wax conifers. Int J Biol Macromol 33: 31-35.
- Medina E, Aguiar G, Gomez M, Aranda J, Medina JD, Winter K (2006).
Taxonomic significance of the epicuticular wax composition in
species of the genus
Clusia
from Panama.
Biochem Syst Ecol
34: 319-326.
- Mimura MR, Salatino ML, Salatino A, Baumgratz JF (1998). Alkanes
from foliar epicuticular waxes of
Huberia
species: taxonomic
implications. Biochem Syst Ecol 26: 581-588.
- Muller C (2006). Plant–insect interactions on cuticular surfaces. In:
Riederer M, Muller C, editors. Biology of the Plant Cuticle.
Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 398-422.
- Nadiminti PP, Rookes JE, Boyd BJ, Cahill DM (2015). Confocal laser
scanning microscopy elucidation of the 547 micromorphology
of the leaf cuticle and analysis of its chemical composition.
Protoplasma 252: 1475-1486.
- Neinhuis C, Barthlott W (1997). Characterization and distribution of
water-repellent, self-cleaning plant surfaces.
Ann Bot London
79: 667-677.
- Odlyha M (1995). Investigation of the binding media of paintings by
thermoanalytical and spectroscopic techniques.
Thermochim
Acta 269: 705-727.
- Oliveira AF, Meirelles ST, Salatino A (2003). Epicuticular waxes from
caatinga and cerrado species and their efficiency against water
loss. An Acad Bras Cienc 75: 431-439.
- Paoletti E, Raddi P, La Scala S (1998). Relationships between
transpiration, stomatal damage and leaf wettability in declining
beech trees. Chemosphere 36: 907-912.
- Pociūtė M, Lehmann B, Vitkauskas A (2003). Wetting behaviour of
surgical polyester woven fabrics. Mater Sci+ 9: 410-413.
- Prasad RBN, Giilz PG (1990). Developmental and seasonal variations
in the epicuticular waxes of beech leaves (
Fagus sylvatica
L.). Z
Naturforsch C
45: 805-812.
- Rashotte AM, Feldmann KA (1998). Correlations between
epicuticular wax structures and chemical composition in
Arabidopsis thaliana
. Int J Plant Sci 773-779.
- Regert M, Langlois J, Colinart S (2005). Characterisation of wax
works of art by gas chromatographic procedures.
J Chromatogr
A 1091: 124-136.
- Reicosky DA, Hanover JW (1978). Physiological effects of surface
waxes I. Light reflectance for glaucous and nonglaucous
Picea
pungens
. Plant Physiol 62: 101-104.
- Rhee Y, Hlousek-Radojcic A, Ponsamuel J, Liu D, Post-Beittenmiller
D (1998). Epicuticular wax accumulation and fatty acid
elongation activities are induced during leaf development of
leeks. Plant Physiol 116: 901-911.
- Riedel M, Eichner A, Jetter R (2003). Slippery surfaces of carnivorous
plants: composition of epicuticular wax crystals in
Nepenthes
alata
Blanco pitchers.
Planta
218: 87-97.
- Riedel M, Eichner A, Meimberg H, Jetter R (2007). Chemical
composition of epicuticular wax crystals on the slippery zone
in pitchers of five
Nepenthes
species and hybrids.
Planta
225:
1517-1534.
- Riederer M, Schreiber L (2001). Protecting against water loss:
analysis of the barrier properties of plant cuticles.
J Exp Bot
52: 2023-2032.
- Ristic Z, Jenks MA (2002). Leaf cuticle and water loss in maize lines
differing in dehydration avoidance.
J Plant Physiol 159: 645-
651.
- Rosenquist JK, Morrison JC (1988). The development of the cuticle
and epicuticular wax of the grape berry. Vitis
27: 63-70.
- Rutledge CE, Eigenbrode SD (2003). Epicuticular wax on pea plants
decreases instantaneous search rate of
Hippodamia convergens
larvae and reduces attachment to leaf surfaces.
Can Entomol
135: 93-101.
- Saber M, Kashmiri MA, Mohy-ud-din A, Ahmed M, Khanum R
(2010). Epicuticular wax of
Tamarix aphylla
L. J Chem Soc
Pakistan 32:662-667.
- Sachse D, Dawson TE, Kahmen A (2015). Seasonal variation of leaf
wax n-alkane production and δ2H values from the evergreen
oak tree,
Quercus agrifolia
. ISOT Environ Healt S 51: 124-142.
- Sánchez FJ, Manzanares M, de Andrés EF, Tenorio JL, Ayerbe L
(2001). Residual transpiration rate, epicuticular wax load and
leaf colour of pea plants in drought conditions. Influence on
harvest index and canopy temperature. Eur J Agron 15: 57-70.
- Schönherr J (1976). Water permeability of isolated cuticular
membranes: the effect of cuticular waxes on diffusion of
water. Planta
131: 159-164.
- Schönherr J (1982). Resistance of plant surfaces to water loss:
transport properties of cutin, suberin and associated lipids.
In:
Lange OL, Nobel PS, Osmond CB, Ziegler H, editors.
Physiological Plant Ecology II. Berlin, Germany: Springer, pp.
153-179.
- Schönherr J, Riederer M (1989). Foliar penetration and accumulation
of organic chemicals in plant cuticles. In: Ware GW, editor.
Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology,
Vol. 108. New York, NY, USA: Springer, pp. 1-70.
- Schreiber L, Kirsch T, Riederer M (1996). Diffusion through cuticles:
principles and models. Plant Cuticles 109-118.
- Schwab M, Noga G, Barthlott W (1995). The significance of
epicuticular waxes for defence of pathogens as shown for
Botrytis cinerea
infections of kohlrabi and pea plants. Die
Gartenbauwissenschaft 160: 102-109.
- Shirtcliffe NJ, McHale G, Newton MI (2009). Learning from
superhydrophobic plants: the use of hydrophilic areas on
superhydrophobic surfaces for droplet control. Langmuir 25:
14121-14128.
- Simoneit BR (1989). Organic matter of the troposphere—V:
application of molecular marker analysis to biogenic emissions
into the troposphere for source reconciliations. J Atmos Chem
8: 251-275.
- Simoneit BR, Mazurek MA (1982). Organic matter of the
troposphere—II. Natural background of biogenic lipid matter
in aerosols over the rural western United States. Atmos
Environ 16: 2139-2159.
- Szafranek B, Tomaszewski D, Pokrzywinska K, Golebiowski M
(2008). Microstructure and chemical composition of leaf
cuticular wax in two
Salix species
and their hybrid. Acta Biol
Cracov Bot 50: 49-54.
- Taiz L, Zeiger E (1991). Plant Physiology. San Francisco, CA, USA:
Benjamin Cummings.
- Takahashi Y, Tsubaki S, Sakamoto M, Watanabe S, Azuma, JI (2012).
Growth‐dependent chemical and mechanical properties of
cuticular membranes from leaves of
Sonneratia alba
. Plant Cell
Environ 35: 1201-1210.
- Talsness CE, Andrade AJ, Kuriyama SN, Taylor JA, Vom Saal FS
(2009). Components of plastic: experimental studies in animals
and relevance for human health. Philos T Roy Soc B 364: 2079-
2096.
- Uddin MN, Marshall DR (1988). Variation in epicuticular wax
content in wheat. Euphytica 38: 3-9.
- Vogg G, Fischer S, Leide J, Emmanuel E, Jetter R, Levy AA, Riederer
M (2004). Tomato fruit cuticular waxes and their effects on
transpiration barrier properties: functional characterization of
a mutant deficient in a very‐long‐chain fatty acid β‐ketoacyl‐
CoA synthase. J Exp Bot 55: 1401-1410.
- Voigt D, Gorb E, Gorb S (2007). Plant surface–bug interactions:
Dicyphus errans
stalking along trichomes. Arthropod-Plant
Inte 1: 221-243.
- Walton TJ (1990). Waxes, cutin and suberin. In: Harwood JL,
Bowyer JR, editors. Lipids, Membranes and Aspects of
Photobiology. Methods in plant biochemistry, Vol 4. New York,
NY, USA: Academic Press, pp. 105-158.
- Xiao F, Goodwin SM, Xiao Y, Sun Z, Baker D, Tang X, Zhou JM
(2004).
Arabidopsis CYP86A2
represses
Pseudomonas syringae
type III genes and is required for cuticle development. EMBO
J 23: 2903-2913.
- Yadav J, Datta M, Gour VS (2014). Developing hydrophobic paper
as a packaging material using epicuticular wax: a sustainable
approach. Bioresources 9: 5066-5072.
- Zafar ZU, Athar HUR (2013). Reducing disease incidence of cotton
Leaf curl virus (CLCuV) in cotton (
Gossypium hirsutum
) by
potassium supplementation. Pak J Bot 45: 1029-1038.
- Zlatković B, Mitić ZS, Jovanović S, Lakušić D, Lakušić B, Rajković J,
Stojanović G (2016). Epidermal structures and composition of
epicuticular waxes of
Sedum album
sensu lato
(
Crassulaceae
) in
Balkan Peninsula. Plant Biosyst 151: 974-984.
- Znidarcic D, Valic N, Trdan S (2008). Epicuticular wax content in
the leaves of cabbage (
Brassica oleracea
L. var.
capitata
) as a
mechanical barrier against three insect pests. Acta Agriculturae
Slovenica 91: 361-370.
- Zubris KAV, Richards BK (2005). Synthetic fibers as an indicator of
land application of sludge. Environ Pollut 138: 201-211.