Fosil polen analizlerinde kullanılan antropojenik göstergelerin değerlendirilmesi ve arazi kullanım şekilleri
Paleocoğrafya araştırmalarında geçmişteki insan faaliyetleri ve insanın ortam üzerindeki etkilerinin belirlenmesi büyük bir öneme sahiptir. Göl ve bataklık sedimanlarından elde edilen fosil polen verileri arazi üzerindeki insan faaliyetlerinin belirlenmesinde kullanılan en yaygın dolaylı kayıtlardan biridir. Bu çalışmada fosil polen kayıtlarında insan etkisinin yorumlanmasında kullanılan ve belirli arazi kullanım şekillerini yansıtan antropojenik göstergelerin bir arada verilmesi ve bu alandaki araştırmacıların kullanımına sunulması amaçlanmıştır. Bunu gerçekleştirmek için güncel polen ve fosil polen analizi çalışmalarına ait bulgular ve değerlendirmeler ve bunların farklı lokasyonlarda yer alan fosil polen analizi bulgularına uyarlanması esas alınmıştır. Tarihsel süreçte insan faaliyetlerinin farklı şekilleri belirli dönemlerde farklı bitki türlerinin dolayısıyla farklı polen birliklerinin ortaya çıkmasına ya da yayılmasına neden olmuştur. Bu polen birliklerinin fosil polen diyagramlarında kullanılması sonucunda insan etkisi ve bazı arazi kullanım şekilleri belirlenebilmektedir. Şimdiye kadar gerçekleştirilen polen çalışmalarının değerlendirilmesi sonucunda tarım arazileri, terk edilmiş tarım arazileri, otlatma ve tarım faaliyetlerinden etkilenen araziler, doğal ormanların tahrip edildiği araziler olmak üzere dört farklı arazi kullanım şekli ve bu arazileri işaret eden en yaygın antropojenik göstergeler belirlenmiştir.
Evaluation of anthropogenic indicators used in fossil pollen analysis and land-use types
In paleogeographical researches, determining the past human activities and the effects of human on the environment is of great importance. Fossil pollen data obtained from lakes and marsh sediments are one of the most common proxy records used in determining human activities on the land. In this study, it is aimed to give anthropogenic indicators together, which are used in the interpretation of the human impact in the fossil pollen records and reflect certain land-use types, and to be presented to the researchers in this field. To achieve this, the results and evaluations of modern pollen and fossil pollen analysis studies and their adaptation to fossil pollen analysis results in different location were based on. Different forms of human activities in the historical process have led to the emergence or spread of different plant species and therefore different pollen assemblages in certain periods. Using these pollen assemblages in fossil pollen diagrams, human impact and some types of land use can be determined. As a result of the evaluation of the pollen studies carried out so far, four different types of land use, namely agricultural lands, abandoned agricultural lands, lands affected by grazing and agricultural activities, deforested lands, and the most common anthropogenic indicators indicating these lands have been determined.
___
- Aaby, B. (1986). Trees as anthropogenic indicators in regional pollen
diagrams from eastern Denmark. In: Behre K-E. (Eds.) Anthropogenic
indicators in pollen diagrams (p. 73–93). Rotterdam:
Balkema.
- Bakker, J., Paulissen, E., Kaniewski, D., De Laet, V., Verstraeten, G. ve
Waelkens, M. (2011). Man, vegetation and climate during the
Holocene in the Territory of Sagalassos, Western Taurus mountains,
SW Turkey, Veg. Hist. Archeobot. 21: 249–266.
- Bakker, J., Paulissen, E., Kaniewski, D., Poblome, J., De Laet, V., Verstraeten,
G. ve Waelkens, M. (2013). Climate, people, fire and vegetation:
new insights into vegetation dynamics in the Eastern
Mediterranean since the 1st century AD. Clim. Past 9: 57–87.
- Behre, K.E. (1981). The interpretation of anthropogenic indicators in
pollen diagrams. Pollen et Spores 23: 235-247.
- Behre, K.E. (1986). Anthropogenic indicators in pollen diagrams. Rotterdam:
A.A. Balkema.
- Behre, K.E. (1990). Some reflections on anthropogenic indicators and
the record of prehistoric occupation phases in pollen diagrams
from the Near East. Bottema, S., Entjes-Nieborg, G., van Zeist, W.
(Eds.), Man’s Role in the Shaping of the Eastern Mediterranean
Landscape (p. 219-230). Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema.
- Bell, M. ve Walker, M.J.C. (1992). Late Quatemary Environmental
Change: Physical and human perspectives. Harlow: Longman
Group UK Limited.
- Berglund, B.E. (1988). The cultural landscape during 6000 years in
South Sweden-an interdisciplinary study. Birks, HH., Birks, HJB.,
Kaland, PE., Moe, D. (Eds.), The Cultural Landscape - Past, Present
and Future. (p. 241-254). Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
- Berglund, B.E. (Ed.) (1991). The Cultural landscape during 6000 years
in southern Sweden. Ecological Bulletins 41 (496 pp.). Copenhagen:
Publisher Munksgaard.
- Berglund, B.E. ve Ralska-Jasiewiczowa, M. (1986). Pollen analysis.
Berglund, B.E. (Eds.), Handbook of Holocene Palaeoecology and
Palaeohydrology (p. 455–484). Chichester: Wiley.
- Biltekin, D.,Eriş, K.K., Çağatay, M.N., Akçer Ön, S. ve Bal Akkoca, D.
(2018). Late Pleistocene–Holocene environmental change in
eastern Turkey: multi-proxy palaeoecological data of vegetation
and lake-catchment changes. Journal of Quaternary Science
274: 88-101.
- Birks, H.J.B. (1990). Indicator values of pollen types from post-6000
B.P. pollen assemblages from southern England and southern
Sweden. Quaternary Studies in Poland 10: 21-31.
- Birks, H.J.B. ve Birks, H.H. (1980). Quaternary Palaeoecology. (289
pp.). London: Edward Arnold.
- Blom, C.W.P.M., Husson, L.M.F. ve Westhoff, V. (1979). Effects of
trampling and soil compaction on the occurrence of some Plantago
species in coastal dunes. IV. The vegetation of two dune
grasslands in relation to physical soil factors. Proceedings of the
Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen (Series
C) 82: 245-273.
- Bottema, S. ve Woldring, H. (1984). Late Quaternary vegetation and
climate of Southwestern Turkey II. Palaeohistoria,26, 123-149.
- Bottema, S. ve Woldring, H. (1990). Anthropogenic indicators in the
pollen record of the Eastern Mediterranean. Bottema, S., Entjes-
Nieborg, G., Van Zeist, W. (Eds.), Man’s Role in the Shaping of
the Eastern Mediterranean Landscape (p. 231-264). Rotterdam:
Balkema.
- Bottema, S., Woldring, H. ve Aytuğ, B. (1986). Palynological investigations
on the relations between prehistoric man and vegetation
in Turkey: the Beyşehir Occupation Phase. Demiriz, H.,
Özhatay, N. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 5th Optima Congress (p.
315-328). September 1986, Istanbul.
- Bottema, S., Woldring, H. ve Aytuğ, B. (1993-1994). Late Quaternary
vegetation history of northern Turkey. Palaeohistoria 35/36: 13-
72.
- Bottema, S., Woldring, H. ve Kayan, İ. (2001). The Late Quarternary
Vegetation History of Western Turkey. J.J. and Thissen, L.C.,
(Ed.), The Ilipinar Excavations II, Roodenberg (p. 327–354). Leiden:
Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten.
- Brewer, S., Cheddadi, R., Beaulieu, J.L. de. ve Reille, M. (2002). The
spread of deciduous Quercus throughout Europe since the last
glacial period. Forest Ecology and Management 156: 27-48.
- Brun, C. (2009). Biodiversity changes in highly anthropogenic environments
(cultivated and ruderal) since the Neolithic in eastern
France. The Holocene 19 (6): 861-871.
- Brun, C. (2011). Anthropogenic indicators in pollen diagrams in eastern
France: a critical review. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany
20: 135-142.
- Brun, C., Dessaint, F., Richard, H. ve Bretagnolle, F. (2007). Arable-
weed flora and its pollen representation: a case study from
the eastern part of France. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology
146 (1-4): 29-50.
- Chapman, G.P. ve Peat W.E. (translated by Wang Y.R.) (1996). An Introduction
to the Grasses (Including Bamboos and Cereals). Beijing:
Science Press.
- Court-Picon, M., Buttler, A. ve Beaulieu J-L de. (2006). Modern pollen/
vegetation/land-use relationships in mountain environments:
an example from the Champsaur valley (French Alps).
Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 15: 151–168.
- Djamali, M., de Beaulieu, J-L., Andrieu-Ponel, V., Berberian M., Miller,
N.F., Gandouin, E., Lahijani, H., Shah-Hosseini, M., Ponel, P.,
Salimian, M. ve Guiter, F. (2009). A late Holocene pollen record
from Lake Almalou in NW Iran: evidence for changing land-use
in relation to some historical events during the last 3700 years.
Journal of Archaeological Science 36: 1364–1375.
- Domínguez-Vázquez, G., Islebe, G.A. ve Villanueva-Gutiérrez, R.,
(2004). Modern pollen deposition in Lacandon forest, Chiapas,
Mexico. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 131(1-2): 105–
116.
- Eastwood, W.J., Gümüşçü, O., Yiğitbaşıoğlu, H., Haldon, J.F. ve England,
A. (2009). Integrating Palaeoecological and Archaeo-Historical
records: Land use and Landscape change in Cappadocia
(central Turkey) since late Antiquity. Vorderstrasse, T., Roodenberg,
J. (Ed.), Archaeology of The Countryside in Medieval Anatolia
(p.45-69). Pihans.
- Eastwood, W.J., Roberts, N. ve Boyer, P. (2007). Pollen analysis at Çatalhöyük.
Hodder, I. (Ed.), Excavations at Çatalhöyük: the 1995-
1999 Seasons (p. 573-580). Ankara: Monograph of the McDonald
Institute and the British Institute of Archaeology (BIAA).
- Eastwood, W.J., Roberts, N. ve Lamb, H.F. (1998). Palaeoecological
and archaeological evidence for human occupance in southwest
Turkey: the Beyşehir occupation phase. Anatol. Stud.
48: 69-86.
- Eastwood, W.J., Roberts, N., Lamb, H.F. ve Tibby, J.C. (1999). Holocene
environmental change in southwest Turkey: a palaeoecological
record of lake and catchment-related changes. Quat. Sci.
Rev. 18: 671-695.
- Ejarque, A., Miras, Y. ve Riera, S. (2011). Pollen and non-pollen palynomorph
indicators of vegetation and highland grazing activities
obtained from modern surface and dung datasets in the
eastern Pyrenees. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 167:
123-139.
- England, A., Eastwood, W.J., Roberts, C.N., Turner, R. ve Haldon, J.F.
(2008). Historical landscape change in Cappadocia (central Turkey):
a palaeoecological investigation of annually-laminated sediments
from Nar lake. The Holocene 18 (8): 1229-1245.
- Eriş, K.K., Arslan, T.N. ve Sabuncu, A. (2018). Influences of Climate
and Tectonic on the Middle to Late Holocene Deltaic Sedimentation
in Lake Hazar, Eastern Turkey. Arabian Journal for Science
and Engineering 43: 3685–3697.
- Fægri, K. ve Iversen, J. (1975). Textbook of Pollen Analysis (3rd ed.).
New York: Hafner.
- Gaillard, M.J. (2007). Archaeological Applications. Elias, S., Mock, M.
(Eds.), Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science (p. 2570-2595). Second
Edition-Elsevier.
- Gaillard, M.J., Birks, H.J.B., Emaunelsson, U. ve Berglund, B.E. (1992).
Modern pollen/land-use relationships as an aid in the reconstruction
of past land-uses and cultural landscapes: an example
from south Sweden. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 1:
3-17.
- Gaillard, M.J., Birks, H.J.B., Emanuelsson, U., Karlsson, S., Lageras, P.
ve Olausson, D. (1994). Application of modern pollen/land-use
relationships to the interpretation of pollen diagrams- Reconstructions
of land-use history in South Sweden, 3000-0 BP. Review
of Palaeobotany and Palynology 82: 47–73.
- Giraudi, C., Mercuri, A.M. ve Esu, D. (2012). Holocene palaeoclimate
in the northern Sahara margin (Jefara Plain, northwestern libya).
The Holocene 23(3): 339-352.
- Groenman-van Waateringe, W. (1986). Grazing possibilities in the
Neolithic of the Netherlands based on palynological data. Behre,
KE. (Eds.), Anthropogenic Indicators in Pollen Diagrams (p.
187-202). Rotterdam: Balkema.
- Hicks, S. (1988). The representation of different farming practices in
pollen diagrams from northern Finland. Birks, HH., Birks, HJB.,
Kaland, PE., Moe, D. (Eds.) The cultural landscape—past, present
and future (p. 189–207). Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
- Hicks, S. (1992). Modern pollen deposition and its use in interpreting
the occupation history of the island Hailuoto, Finland. Vegetation
History and Archaeobotany 1: 75–86.
- Hicks, S. ve Birks, H.J.B. (1996). Numerical analysis of modern and
fossil pollen spectra as a tool for elucidating the nature of fine-
scale human activities in boreal areas. Vegetation History
and Archaeobotany 5: 257-72.
- Hjelle, K.L. (1997). Relationships between pollen and plants in human-
influenced vegetation types using presence-absence data
in western Norway. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 99:
1–16.
- Hjelle, K.L. (1999a). Modern pollen assemblages from mown and
grazed vegetation types in western Norway. Rev Palaeobot Palynol
107: 55–81.
- Hjelle, K.L. (1999b). Use of modern pollen samples and estimated
pollen representation factors as aids in the interpretation of cultural
activity in local pollen diagrams. Nor Arch Rev 32: 19–39.
- Iversen, J. (1941). Land occupation in Denmark’s Stone age. A pollen-
analytical study of the influence of farmer culture on the vegetational
development. Rӕkke: Dan. Geol. Unders. II, 2 (66):
20-68.
- Iversen, J. (1949). The influence of prehistoric man on vegetation.
Rӕkke: Dan. Geol. Unders., 3 (6): 25.
- Izdebski, A. (2013). A Rural Economy in Transition: Asia Minor from
Late Antiquity into the early Middle Ages. Journal of Juristic Papyrology
supplement 18. Warsaw: Raphael Taubenschlag Foundation.
- Kaniewski, D., De Laet, V., Paulissen, E. ve Waelkens, M. (2007).
Long-term effects of human impact on mountainous ecosystems,
western Taurus Mountains, Turkey. Journal of Biogeography
34: 1-23.
- Kaniewski, D., Paulissen, E., De Laet, V. ve Waelkens, M. (2008). Late
Holocene fire impact and post-fire regeneration from the Bereket
basin, Taurus Mountains, southwest Turkey, Quaternary Res.
70: 228–239.
- Koff, T. (1995). Human impact on the development of the vegetation
of the Kurtna Kame Field in North-East Estonia. PACT 51:
421–439.
- Lagerås, P. (1996). Vegetation and Land-use in the Småland Uplands,
Southern Sweden, During the Last 6000 Years. Lundqua Thesis
36. Lund University. ISSN 0293- 3146.
- Lagerås, P. (2000). Järnålderns odlingssystem och landskapets långsiktiga
förändring-Hamnedas röjningsröseområden i ett paleoekologiskt
perspektiv (Iron Age farming and long-term landscape
change in Hamneda, southern Sweden-Clearance cairn areas in
a palaeoecological perspective. Lagerås, P. (Eds.), Arkeologi och
Paleoekologi i Sydvästra Småland (p. 167–230). Sweden: Riksantikvarieämbetet.
- Lawson, I., Frogley, M., Bryant, C., Preece, R. ve Tzedakis, P. (2004).
The Lateglacial andHolocene environmental history of the Ioannina
basin, north-west Greece. Quaternary Science Reviews 23:
1599–1625.
- Leroy, S., Kazancı, N., İlleri, Ö., Kibar, M., Emre, O., McGee, E. ve Griffiths,
H.I. (2002). Abrupt environmental changes within a late
Holocene lacustrine sequence south of the Marmara Sea (Lake
Manyas, N-W Turkey): possible links with seismic events. Marine
Geology 190: 531-552.
- Leroy, S.A.G., Schwab, M.J. ve Costa, P.J.M. (2010). Seismic influence
on the last 1500-year infill history of Lake Sapanca (North Anatolian
Fault, NW Turkey). Tectonophysics 486: 15–27.
- Li, Y.Y. (2001). Study on ecological background of ancient civilization
and anthropogenic indicator of pollen taxa in Western Liaohe
River Basin. Postdoctoral Research Report (in Chinese). Peking
University.
- Li, Y.Y., Willis, K.J., Zhou L.P. ve Cui, H.T. (2006). The impact of ancient
civilization on the northeastern Chinese landscape: palaeoecological
evidence from the Western Liaohe River Basin, Inner
Mongolia. The Holocene 16 (8): 1109-1121.
- Li, Y.Y., Zhou, L.P. ve Cui, H.T. (2008). Pollen indicators of human activity.
Chinese Science Bulletin 53 (9): 1281-1293.
- Liddle, M.J. ve Greig-Smith, P. (1975). A survey of tracks and paths in
a sand dune ecosystem. II. Vegetation. Journal of Applied Ecology
12: 209-930.
- Love, J.J. ve Walker, M.J.C. (2015). Reconstructing Quaternary Environments
(3rd Edt). Oxon: Routledge.
- Maguire, D.J. (1983). The identification of agricultural activity using
pollen analysis. Jones, M. (Eds.), Integrating the subsistence economy
(p.5-18). British Archaeological Reports, 181.
- Makohonienko, M., Gaillard, M.-J. ve Tobolski, K. (1998). Modern
pollen/land-use relationships in ancient cultural landscapes of
northwestern Poland, with an emphasis on mowing, grazing,
and crop cultivation. Gaillard, M-J., Berglund, BE., Frenzel, B.,
Huckriede, U. (Eds.), Quantification of land surfaces cleared of
forests during the Holocene—Modern pollen/vegetation/landscape
relationships as an aid to the interpretation of fossil pollen
data (p. 85–101). Paläoklimaforschung/Palaeoclimate Research
27. Fischer, Stuttgart,
- Mazier, F., Galop, D., Brun, C. ve Buttler, A. (2006). Modern pollen
assemblages from grazed vegetation in the western Pyrenees,
France: a numerical tool for more precise reconstruction of past
cultural landscapes. Holocene 16: 91–103.
- Mercuri, A.M., Bandini Mazzanti, M., Florenzano, A., Montecchi,
M.C. ve Rattighieri E. (2013). Olea, Juglans and Castanea: the
OJC group as pollen evidence of the development of human-induced
environments in the Italian peninsula. Quaternary International
303: 24-42.
- Miebach, A., Niestrath, P., Roeser, P. ve Litt, T. (2016). Impacts of climate
and humans on the vegetation in northwestern Turkey:
palynological insights from Lake Iznik since the Last Glacial. Clim.
Past 12: 575-593.
- Müllenhoff, M., Handl, M., Knipping, M. ve Brückner, H. (2004). The
evolution of Lake Bafa (Western Turkey)-Sedimentological, microfaunal
and palynological results. G. Schernewski und T. Dolch
(Hrsg.): Geographie der Meere und Küsten, Coastline Reports
1:55-66.
- Neumann F.H., Kagan E.J., Leroy S.A.G. ve Baruch U. (2010). Vegetation
History and Climate Fluctuations on a Transect along the
Dead Sea West Shore and their Impact on Past Societies over
the last 3500 years. Journal of Arid Environments 74: 756–764.
- Neumann, F., Schölzel, C., Litt, T., Hense, A. ve Mordechai, S. (2007).
Holocene vegetation and climate history of the northern Golan
heights (Near East). Veget. Hist. Archaeobot. 16: 329– 346.
- Noë, R. ve Blom, C.W.P.M. (1981). Occurrence of three Plantago species
in coastal dune grasslands in relation to pore-volume and
organic matter content of the soil. Journal of Applied Ecology
19: 177-182.
- Oberdorfer, E. (1970). Pflanzensoziologische Exkursionsflora für Süddeutschland
und die angrenzenden Gebiete. Stuttgart: Verlag
Eugen Ulmer.
- Overland, A. ve Hjelle, K.L. (2009). From forest to open pastures and
fields: cultural landscape development in western Norway inferred
from two pollen records representing different spatial scales
of vegetation. Veget Hist Archaebot 18: 459-476.
- Ören, A. (2018). Kültepe (Kayseri) Çevresinin Fosil Polen Analizleri Işığında
Holosen Paleocoğrafyası. (Yayımlanmamış doktora tezi).
Ankara Üniversitesi/Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara.
- Prentice, I.C. (1988). Records of vegetation in time and space: the
principles of pollen analysis. Huntley, B., Webb III, T. (Eds.), Vegetation
History (p. 17–42). Kluwer: The Hague.
- Prøsch-Danielsen, L. (1993). Prehistoric agriculture revealed by
pollen analysis, plough-marks and sediment studies at Sola,
south-western Norway. Veget Hist Archaebot 2: 233-244.
- Roberts, N. (2002). The Holocene: an environmental history (2nd edition).
Oxford: Blackwell.
- Roberts, N., Allcock, S.L., Arnaud, F., Dean, J.R., Eastwood, W.J., Jones,
M.D., Leng, M.J., Metcalfe, S.E., Malet, E., Woodbridge, J.
ve Yiğitbaşıoğlu, H. (2016). A tale of two lakes: a multi-proxy
comparison of Lateglacial and Holocene environmental change
in Cappadocia, Turkey. J. Quat. Sci. 31 (4): 348-362.
- Roberts, N., Eastwood, W.J., Lamb, H.F. ve Tibby, J.C. (1997). The
age and causes of Mid- Late Holocene environmental change in
southwest Turkey. Nüzhet Dalfes, H., Kukla, G., Weiss, H. (Ed.),
Third Millennium BC Climate Change and Old World Collapse (p.
410-429). Berlin: NATO ASI Series, vol. 1.
- Sullivan, D.G. (1988). The Discovery of Santorini Minoan Tephra in
Western Turkey, Nature Publishing Group 333: 552-554.
- Şenkul, Ç., Ören, A., Doğan, U. ve Eastwood, W.J. (2018). Late Holocene
environmental changes in the vicinity of Kültepe (Kayseri),
Central Anatolia, Turkey. Quaternary International 486, 107-115.
- Turner, J. (1964). The anthropogenic factor in vegetational history
I.Tregaron and Whixall Mosses. New Phytol 63: 73-90.
- van Zeist, W., Woldring, H. ve Stapert, D. (1975). Late Quaternary vegetation
and climate of the southwestern Turkey. Paleohistoria
17: 53-143.
- Vera, F.W.M. (2000). Grazing ecology and forest history. Wallingford:
CABI Publishing.
- Vermoere, M., Bottema, S., Vanhecke, L., Waelkens, M. ve Smets, E.
(2002). Palynological evidence for late Holocene human occupation
recorded in two wetlands in southwest Turkey. The Holocene
12 (5): 569-584.
- Vorren, K.D. (1986). The impact of early agriculture on the vegetation
of Northern Norway. A discussion of anthropogenic indicators
in biostratigraphical data. Behre, K.E. (Eds.), Anthropogenic
Indicators in Pollen Diagrams (p. 1–18). Rotterdam: Balkema.
- Vuorela, I. (1986). Palynological and historical evidence of slashand-
burn cultivation in South Finland. Behre, K-E. (Eds.), Anthropogenic
Indicators in Pollen Diagrams (pp. 53–64). Rotterdam,
Boston: Balkema A.A.
- Westhoff, V. (1967). The ecological impact of pedestrian, equestrian
and vehicular traffic on vegetation. Proceedings and Papers of
IUCN 10th Technical Meeting 7: 218-223.
- Wick, L., Lemcke, G. ve Sturm, M. (2003). Evidence of Lateglacial and
Holocene climatic change and human impact in eastern Anatolia:
high-resolution pollen, charcoal, isotopic and geochemical
records from the laminated sediments of Lake Van, Turkey. The
Holocene 13 (5): 665–675.