Tek Yapı olarak Okuma: Bir Süreç-Yönelimli Çalışma

Birçok araştırmacı okumanın bölünebilirliğini araştırmış ve okuma yapısının ayrı alt becerilere bölünemeyen tek bir üniter beceriden veya bu yapının altında yatan birçok bileşenlerden oluşup olmadığını incelemiştir. Ancak, bu çalışmalarda katılımcılar genellikle ürün-odaklı ölçme uygulamalarına katılmış ve bu sebeple gerçek okuma davranışlarının araştırmacı tarafından ancak gözlenebilip, yorumlanabildiği okuma süresi ölçümleri ve sesli düşünme protokolleri aracılığıyla veri toplanmıştır. Bu çalışma ise, okuma yapısının anlık bilişsel işlemleri takip edebilen iki göz hareketlerini izleme teknolojisini (Tobii Stüdyo T120 ve Tobii Gözlük) hem kağıt hem de bilgisayar testlerini kullanarak araştırmayı amaçlamaktadır ve bu sebeple yabancı dilde okuma çalışmasında araştırmacı ve çevrenin getirdiği hata miktarını azaltmayı hedeflemektedir. Çalışmaya büyük bir devlet üniversitesinde İngilizce Öğretmenliği programında okuyan sekiz lisans öğrencisi katılmış ve katılımcılar hem kağıt hem de bilgisayar okuma anlama testini göz hareketleri takip edildiği esnada cevaplamışlardır. Sonuçlar, üniversitelerde iki dönem boyunca yoğun bir şekilde sunulan okuma becerilerinin hızlı ve etkin kullanımı derslerine rağmen, katılımcı işlemlerinin bu becerileri kullanmadığını ve bu sebeple yabancı dilde okuma yapısının tek boyutlu bir yapıdan oluştuğunu göstermektedir. Araştırma sonuçları dil öğretimi ve ölçümü çerçevesinde tartışılmıştır.

Reading as a Single Construct: A Process-Oriented Study

The divisibility of the reading has led many researchers to examine whetherreading construct is a unitary skill that cannot be divided into separate sub-skills, or itis composed of underlying components. In these studies, however, participants havegenerally been located in a product-oriented testing environment where their actualreading behaviors could only be observed or interpreted by the researcher throughparticipants’ reading time measures or think aloud protocols. Therefore, this study fillsthis gap by offering an opportunity to track moment-to-moment cognitive processes ofreading construct through two eye-tracking technologies (i.e., Tobii Studio EyeTracker T120 and Tobii Glasses Eye Tracking System) both on computer and papertests, reducing the amount of errors brought by the researcher and environmentalfactors to investigate the nature of L2 reading. To this end, eight undergraduatestudents in English Language Teaching department at a major state university inTurkey responded to a reading comprehension test both on computer and paper.Results indicated that despite formal and explicit training on the use of expeditioussub-skills of reading for two semesters, participants did not employ these operations,rejecting a multi-divisible view of L2 reading construct. The results are discussedwithin the framework of language teaching and assessment.

PDF

___

Alderson, J. C. (2000). Assessing reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Altarriba, J., Kroll, J. E, Sholl, A., & Rayner, K. (1996). The influence of lexical and conceptual constraints on reading mixed language sentences: Evidence from eye fixation and naming times. Memory & Cognition, 24, 477-492.
Bax, S. (2013). The cognitive processing of candidates during reading tests: Evidence from eyetracking. Language Testing, 30(4), 441–465.
Bertram, R. (2011). Eye movements and morphological processing in reading. The Mental Lexicon, 6(1), 83-109.
Boland, J. E. (1993). The role of verb argument structure in sentence processing: Distinguishing between syntactic and semantic effects. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 2, 133-15.
Brutten, G. J., Bakker, K., Janssen, P., & VanderMeulen, S. (1984). Eye movements of stuttering and nonstuttering children during silent reading. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 27, 562-566.
Buscher, G., Biedert, R., Heinesch, D., & Dengel, A. (2010). Eye-tracking analysis of preferred reading regions on the screen. Proceedings of CHI Extended Abstracts, (pp. 3307–3312). New York, NY: ACM. doi:10.1145/1753846.1753976
Carver, R. P. (1992). What do standardized tests of reading comprehension measure in terms of efficiency, accuracy and rate? Reading Research Quarterly, 27, 347 – 59.
Chincotta, D., Hyönä, J., & Underwood, G. (1997). Eye fixations, speech rate and bilingual digit-span: Numeral reading indexes fluency not word length. Acta Psychologica, 97(3), 253-275.
Costa, A., Caramazza, A., & Sebastián-Gallés, N. (2000). The cognate facilitation effect: Implications for models of lexical access. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26, 1283-1296.
Everatt, J., Bradshaw, M. E., & Hibbard, P. B. (1998). Individual differences in reading and eye movement control. In G. Underwood (Ed.), Eye guidance in reading and scene perception, (pp. 223-242). Oxford, England: Elsevier.
Everatt, J., & Underwood, G. (1994). Individual differences in reading subprocesses: Relationships between reading ability, lexical access, and eye movement control. Language & Speech, 37, 283–297.
Farris-Trimble, A., & McMurray, B. (2013). Test-retest reliability of eye tracking in the visual world paradigm for the study of real-time spoken word recognition. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 56(4), 1328–1345.
Frazier, L., & Rayner, K. (1982). Making and correcting errors during sentence comprehension: Eye movements in the analysis of structurally ambiguous sentences. Cognitive Psychology, 14, 178 – 210.
Gough, P. B., & Hillinger, M. L. (1980). Learning to read: an unnatural act. Annals of Dyslexia, 30(1), 179–196.
Hawkins, R., & Chan, C. Y. (1997). The partial accessibility of Universal Grammar in second language acquisition: The failed functional features hypothesis. Second Language Research, 13, 187 – 226.
Henderson, J. M., & Ferreira, E. (1990). Effects of foveal processing difficulty on the perceptual span in reading: Implications for attention and eye movement control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 417-429.
Hessamy, G., & Suldaragh, S. D. (2013). Construct validity of careful vs. expeditious reading skills. International Journal of English Language Education, 1(3), 223-243.
Hoover, W. A., & Tunmer, W. E. (1993). The components of reading. In G. B., W. E. Tunmer, & T. Nicholson (Eds.), Language and education library, 4. Reading acquisition processes (pp. 1-19). Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1987). The psychology of reading and language comprehension. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Just, M. A., Carpenter, P.A., & Masson, M. E. J. (1982). What eye fixations tell us about speed reading and skimming. Eye-lab Technical Report. Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie- Mellon University.
Keating, G. D. (2009). Sensitivity to violations in gender agreement in native and nonnative Spanish: An eye-movement investigation. Language Learning, 59, 503 – 535.
Kennedy, A. (1983). On looking into space. In K. Rayner (Ed.), Eye movements in reading: Perceptual and language processes, (pp. 237- 251). New York: Academic Press. Kennedy, A., & Murray, W. S. (1987a). The components of reading time: Eye movement patterns of good and poor readers. In J. K. O'Regan & A. Ltvy-Schoen (Eds.), Eye movements: From physiology to cognition (pp. 509-520). Amsterdam: North Holland.
Kennedy, A., & Murray, W. S. (1987b). Spatial coordinates and reading: Comments on Monk. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 39A, 649-656.
Khalifa, H., & Weir, C. (2009). Examining reading: Research and practice in assessing second language reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lemhöfer, K., & Dijkstra, T. (2004). Recognizing cognates and interlingual homographs: Effects of code similarity in language-specific and generalized lexical decision. Memory & Cognition, 32, 533–550.
Lemhöfer, K., Dijkstra, T., & Michel, M. (2004). Three languages, one ECHO: Cognate effects in trilingual word recognition. Language and Cognitive Processes, 19, 585– 611.
Lenneberg, E. (1967). Biological foundations of language. New York: Wiley.
Lunzer, E., & Gardner, K. (1979). The effective use of reading. London: Heinemann Educational Books.
Mestre, C., & Pynte, J. (1997). Syntactic ambiguity resolution while reading in second and native languages. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 50A, 119-148.
Murray, W. S., & Kennedy, A. (1988). Spatial coding in the processing of anaphor by good and poor readers: Evidence from eye movement analyses. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 40A, 693- 718.
Omaggio, A. C. (1979). Pictures and second language comprehension: Do they help? Foreign Language Annals, 12, 107–116.
Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon, 9(5). Retrieved from http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/Prensky%20%20Digital%20Natives,%20Digita l%20Immigrants%20-%20Part1.pdf
Prepare for your IELTS test. (2016, December 12). Retrieved from https://www.ielts.org/book-a-test/prepare-for-your-ielts-test
Rayner, K. (1998). Eye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of research. Psychological Bulletin, 124(3), 372–422.
Rayner, K., & Fischer, M. H. (1996). Mindless reading revisited: Eye movements during reading and scanning are different. Perception & Psychophysics, 58, 734-747.
Rayner, K., & Raney, G. E. (1996). Eye movement control in reading and visual search: Effects of word frequency. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 3, 238-244.
Rosenshine, B. V. (1980). Skill hierarchies in reading comprehension. In R. J. Spiro, B. C. Bruce, & W. F. Brewer, (Eds.), Theoretical Issues in reading comprehension, (pp. 535-554). Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Sabourin, L., Stowe, L. A., & de Haan, G. J. (2006). Transfer effects in learning a second language grammatical gender system. Second Language Research, 22, 1-29.
Schwartz, A. I., Kroll, J. F., & Diaz, M. (2007). Reading words in Spanish and English: Mapping orthography to phonology in two languages. Language and Cognitive Processes, 22, 106-129.
Spivey, M., Richardson, D., & Dale, R. (2009). The movement of eye and hand as a window into language and cognition. In E. Morsella & J. Bargh (Eds.), Oxford handbook of human action, (pp. 225–248). New York: Oxford University Press.
Underwood, G., Hubbard, A., & Wilkinson, H. (1990). Eye fixations predict reading comprehension: The relationship between reading skill, reading speed and visual inspection. Language and Speech, 33, 69-81.
Urquhart, A. H., & Weir, C. J. (1998). Reading in a second language: Process, product and practice. London and New York: Longman.
Van Hell, J. G., & De Groot, A. M. B. (2008). Sentence context modulates visual word recognition and translation in bilinguals. Acta Psychologica, 128, 431-451.
Weir, C. J., Huizhong, Y., & Yan, J. (2002). An empirical investigation of the componentiality of L2 reading in English for academic purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Weir, C. J., & Porter, D. (1996). The multi-divisible or unitary nature of reading: the language tester between Scylla and Charybdis. Reading in a Foreign Language, 10, 1-19.
White, L., Valenzuela, E., Kozlowska-Macgregor, M., & Leung, Y. K. I. (2004). Gender and number agreement in nonnative Spanish. Applied Psycholinguistics, 25, 105-133.