DRUG TRAFFICKING AS A TRANSNATIONAL CRIME*

Devletler arasında ekonomik bağımlılığın artması, iletişim ve ulaşım sistemlerindeki hızlı gelişme, uluslararası ticaretteki büyük artış ve küresel bir finans piyasasının ortaya çıkışı uluslararası suç aktörlerinin davranışlarını ciddi ölçüde değiştirmektedir. Uluslararası alanda faaliyet gösteren suç aktörleri küreselleşmenin sağladığı bu yeni olanakları kullanmaktadır. Uyuşturucu ticareti, imal, üretim, taşıma ve dağıtım ile bu süreçten sağlanan kârların ekonomik sisteme sokulmasını içine alan küresel bir sorun olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Uyuşturucu madde ticareti, hem coğrafi hem de ortaya çıkardığı sonuçlar bakımından halen genişlemekte ve son yıllarda yasal olmayan uyuşturucu piyasasında oluşan yeni eğilimler belirgin hale gelmektedir. Günümüzde, uyuşturucu tacirleri ve uluslararası suç örgütleri giderek daha fazla devleti faaliyet alanlarına dahil etmektedir. Yasal olmayan uyuşturucu üretim ve dağıtımı ile mücadele, devletlerin güvenlik birimlerinin uğraştığı geleneksel, temel ve güncel sorunlardan biri olmaya devam etmektedir. Devletlerin ekonomik ve siyasi bağımsızlığını zayıflatan suç faaliyetinin kü- reselleşmesi ve uyuşturucu maddelerin dağıtım imkanları, yasal olmayan uyuşturucu ticaretini bir çok devlet için çok önemli etkileri olan bir güvenlik sorununa dönüştürmektedir. Bu çalışma, uyuşturucu ticareti suçunu uluslararası bir suç olarak çeşitli yönleri ile incelemeyi amaçlamakta ve uyuşturucu maddeler ile ilgili uluslararası alanda oluşturulan kontrol sistemini açıklamaya çalışmaktadır. Çalışmada, ayrıca uyuşturucu ticareti suçlarının ve suçlularının uluslararası bir yargılamaya tabi tutulup tutulamayacağı konusu tartışılmaktadır.

Uluslararası Bir Suç Olarak Uyuşturucu Ticareti Suçu

The growth of economic interdependence among states, the development of rapid transport and communications systems, the vast increase in international trade, and the emergence of a global financial market have dramatically changed the context within which transnational crime operates. Transnational crimes have taken advantage of new opportunities provided by globalism. Drug trafficking is a transnational phenomenon, and includes the production, processing, transportation and distribution of drugs, and the laundering of the profits derived from this activity. The drug trade is still expanding, both geographically and in terms of its products. Several important trends in the drug-trafficking industry have become evident in the last few years. More and more states are being drawn into the orbit of drug traffickers and transnational criminal organizations. Combating the illicit production and distribution of drugs has been traditionally regarded as principally a matter for law enforcement agencies. The globalization of criminal activities and the ability of narcotics trafficking to undermine the political and economic sovereignty of states have already made the illicit drug trade a significant security issue for many states and a primary strategic concern for the most seriously affected. This article aims to make an analysis of drug trafficking and outline the dimensions of drug trafficking as a transnational crime. This study also focuses on a historical review of the international drug control system. In addition, this article discusses one possible means for bringing international drug traffickers to justice: the exercise of universal jurisdiction over persons accused of drug trafficking crimes.

___

Al-Mulla, Mohammed A. H. A., Evolution of an International System of Drug Control Law and Instrumentation and the Need for Reform: the Breadth and Depth of the Global Illicit Drug Problem, Ph. D. Thesis, University of London 1995.

Aoyagi Melissa T., ‘‘Beyond Punitive Prohibition: Liberalizing the Dialogue on International Drug Policy’’, Journal of International Law and Politics, Volume 37, Number 3, March 2006, pp.555-610.

Arsanjani Mahnoush H., ‘‘The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court’’, The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 93, No. 1, Jan. 1999, pp. 22-43.

Bantekas Ilias & Nash Susan, İnternational Criminal Law, Third Edition, 2007.

Barnett Richard J., ‘‘Extradition Treaty Improvements to Combat Drug Trafficking’’, Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law, Vol. 15, 1985, pp.285-315.

Bassiouni M. Cherif, ‘‘Universal Jurisdiction for International Crimes: Historical Perspectives and Contemporary Practice’’, Virginia Journal of International Law Association, Fall 2001, pp.81-162.

Bennettt Allyson, ‘‘That Sinking Feeling: Stateless Ships, Universal Jurisdiction, and the Drug Trafficking Vessel Interdiction Act’’, The Yale Journal of International Law, Vol. 37, 2012, pp.433-461.

Berman, Paul Schiff, ‘‘The Globalization of Jurisdiction’’, University of Connecticut School of Law Articles and Working Papers. Paper 13, 2002.

Betti Stefano, The European Union and the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organised Crime, European Parliament, Civil Liberties Series, 2011.

Boggess D. Brian,‘‘Exporting United States Drug Law: An Example of the International Legal Ramifications of the “War On Drugs”’’, Brigham Young University Law, 1992, pp.165-190.

Boister Neil Brett, The Suppression of Illicit Drugs through International Law, University of Nottingham, 1998.

Boister Neil, “International Tribunals for Transnational Crimes: Towards a Transnational Criminal Court?”, Criminal Law Forum, Vol. 23, 2012, No. 4, pp. 295-318.

Boister, Neil, ‘‘Transnational Criminal Law?’’, European Journal of International Law, Vol. 14, No. 5, 2003, pp.953-976.

Bulletin on Narcotics, A Century of International Drug Control, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Ed. Sandeep Chawla, New York, 2009.

Chawla Sandeep & Pietschmann Thomas, ‘‘Drug Trafficking as a Transnational Crime’’, Handbook of Transnational Crime and Justice, Ed. Philip Reichel, Sage Publications, 2005, pp.160-180.

Ciccarelli John, ‘‘Crime as a Security Threat in the 21st Century’’, Journal of the Australian Naval Institute, Vol. 22, Issue 4, November/December 1996, pp.41-44.

Cook Catherine, Bridge Jamie & Stimson Gerry V., ‘‘The Diffusion of Harm Reduction in Europe and Beyond’’, Harm Reduction: Evidence, Impacts and Challenges, European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, 2010.

Crawford James, ‘‘The ILC’s Draft Statute for an International Criminal Tribunal’’, The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 88, No. 1, 1994, pp.140- 152.

Cryer Robert, Friman Hakan, Robinson Darryl &Wilmshurst Elizabeth, An Introduction to International Criminal Law and Procedure, 2nd Edition, Cambridge University Press, June 2010.

Çevik Kürşat, Internationalisation of Turkish Law Enforcement: A Atudy of Anti-Drug Trafficking, PhD Thesis, University of Nottingham, 2013.

Dupont Alan, ‘‘Transnational Crime, Drugs, and Security in East Asia’’ Asian Survey, Vol. 39, No. 3, May - Jun. 1999, University of California Press, pp.433- 455.

Dziedzic Michael J. ‘‘The Transnational Drug Trade and Regional Security’’, Survival: Global Politics and Strategy, Vol. 31 Number 6, 1989, pp.533-548.

Emmers Ralf, ‘‘International Regime-Building in ASEAN: Cooperation against the Illicit Trafficking andAbuse of Drugs’’, Contemporary Southeast Asia, Vol. 29, No. 3, December 2007, pp.506-525.

Estimating Illicit Financial Flows Resulting From Drug Trafficking and Other Transnational Organized Crimes, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Vienna Austria, Research Report, 2011.

Evered, Timothy C., ‘‘An International Criminal Court: Recent Proposals and American Concerns’’, Pace International Law Review, Vol. 6, Issue 1, Winter 1994, pp.121-158.

Fazey Cindy, ‘‘International Policy on Illicit Drug Trafficking: The Formal and Informal Mechanism’’, Journal of Drug Issues, Vol.37, Issue 4, 2007, pp.755-780.

Felsen David & Kalaitzidis Akis, ‘‘A Historical Overview of Transnational Crime’’, Handbook of Transnational Crime and Justice, Ed. Philip Reichel, Sage Publications, 2005, pp.3-19.

Findlay Mark, ‘‘The Globalisation of Crime’’, Australian Quarterly, Vol. 71, No. 4, Jul. - Aug. 1999, pp.23-27.

Fritch Charles R., ‘‘Drug Smuggling on the High Seas: Using International Legal Principles to Establish Jurisdiction Over the Illicit Narcotics Trade and the Ninth Circuit’s Unnecessary Nexus Requirement’’, Washington University Global Studies Law Review, Vol. 8, Issue 4, 2009, pp.701-721.

Galeotti Mark, ‘‘Introduction: Global Crime Today’’, Global Crime, Vol. 6, No. 1, February 2004, p.1-7.

Gallagher Anne, ‘‘Human Rights and the New UN Protocols on Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling: A Preliminary Analysis’’, Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 23, 2001, pp.975-1004.

Geraghty Anne H., ‘‘Universal Jurisdiction and Drug Trafficking: A Tool for Fighting One of the World’s Most Pervasive Problems’’, Florida Journal of International Law, Volume16, 2004, pp.371-403.

Gianaris William N., ‘‘The New World Order and the Need for an International Criminal Court’’, Fordham International Law Journal, Vol. 16, Issue 1, 1992, pp.88-119.

Global Programme against Transnational Organized Crime, Results of a Pilot Survey of Forty Selected Organised Criminal Groups in Sixteen Countries, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, September 2002.

Goodman J., Lovejoy P., and Sherratt A. (eds), Consuming Habits: Drugs in History and Anthropology, Routledge, London,1995.

Griffith Gavan & Harris Claire, ‘‘Recent Developments in the Law of Extradition’’, Melbourne Journal of International Law, Vol. 6, 2005, pp.33-54.

Gurule Jimmy, ‘‘The 1988 U.N. Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances – A Ten Year Perspective: Is International Cooperation Merely Illusory?’’, Fordham International Law Journal, Vol. 22, Issue 1, 1998, pp.73-121.

Haken Jeremy, Transnational Crime In The Developing World, Global Financial Integrity, February 2011.

Hall Tim, ‘‘Economic Geography and Organized Crime: A Critical Review’’, Geoforum, Vol. 41, Issue 6, November 2010, pp.841-845.

Hauck Pierre & Peterke Sven, ‘‘Organized Crime and Gang Violence in National and International Law, International Review of the Red Cross’’, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 92, Issue 878, June 2010, pp.409-436.

Henderson Convay W., Understanding International Law, 2010.

Hunt Neil, A Review of the Evidence-Base for Harm Reduction Approaches to Drug Use, Forward Thinking on Drugs, 2003.

Illuminati Giulio, ‘‘ Transnational Inquiries in Criminal Matters and Respect for Fair Trial Guarantees’’, Transnational Inquiries and the Protection of Fundamental Rights in Criminal Proceedings, Ed. Stefano Ruggeri, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, 2013.

Irrera Daniela, ‘‘The EU Strategy in Tackling Organized Crime in the Framework of Multilateralism’’, Perspectives on European Politics and Society, Vol. 12, No. 4, December 2011, pp.407-419.

Jamieson Alison, ‘‘Transnational Organized Crime: A European Perspective’’, Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, Vol.24, Number 5, 2001, pp.377-387.

Jenner Matthew S., ‘‘International Drug Trafficking: A Global Problem with a Domestic Solution’’, Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies, Vol. 18, Issue 2, Summer 2011, pp.901-927.

Jordan Jon B., ‘‘Universal Jurisdiction in a Dangerous World: A Weapon for All Nations Against International Crime’’, Michigan State University DCL Journal of International Law, Vol.9, Issue 1, 2000, pp.1-32.

Kenney Michael, ‘‘The Architecture of Drug Trafficking: Network Forms of Organisation in the Colombian Cocaine Trade’’, Global Crime, Vol.8, Number 3, 2007, pp.233-259.

Keohane R. & Joseph Nye, Transnational Relations and World Politics, Harvard University Press, 1971.

Kiefer Heather L., Just Say No: The Case against Expanding the International Criminal Court’s Jurisdiction to Include Drug Trafficking, Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review, Vol.31, Issue 2, 2009, pp.157-181.

Kleiman Mark A.R.,Illicit Drugs and the Terrorist Threat: Causal Links and Implications for Domestic Drug Control Policy, Domestic Social Policy Division, Congressional Research Service, 2004.

Le Vy, Bell Peter & Lauchs Mark, ‘‘Elements of Best Practice in Policing Transnational Organized Crime: Critical Success Factors for International Cooperation’’, International Journal of Management and Administrative Sciences, Vol. 2, No. 3, Feb. 2013, pp.24-34.

Lloyd Marshall B., ‘‘Conflict, Intervention, and Drug Trafficking: Unintented Consequences of United States Policy in Colombia’’, Oklahoma City University Law Review, 2011, Vol. 36, No.2, pp.293-352.

Magherescu Delia, ‘‘Transnational Criminality in Europe and the Danger of its Movement from East to West’’, Journal for Humanities and Social Affairs, Issue 1, 2011, pp.165-194.

Marlatt, G. Alan, Larimer Mary E., Witkiewitz Katie, Harm Reduction: Pragmatic Strategies for Managing High-Risk Behaviors, The Guilford Press, 2012.

McAllister William B. , Drug Diplomacy in theTwentieth Century, An International History, New York, 2000. McConville Molly, ‘‘Global War on Drugs: Why the United States Should Support the Prosecution of Drug Traffickers in the International Criminal Court’’, American Criminal Law Review, Vol. 37, Issue 1, Winter 2000, pp.75-102.

McDonald, W., Crime and Law Enforcement in the Global Village, Cincinnati, OH Anderson Publishing, 1997.

McFarlane John , McLennan Karen, Transnational Crime: The New Security Paradigm, Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, Australian National University, 1996.

Mei Leong Angela Veng, The Disruption of International Organised Crime, Ashgate Publishing Company, 2007.

Michels Johan David, ‘‘Keeping Dealers off the Docket: the Perils of Prosecuting Serious Drug-Related Offences at the International Criminal Court’’, Source Florida Journal of International Law, Vol. 21, 2009, pp.449-459

Mueller Gerhard O.W., ‘‘Transnational Crime: Definitions and Concepts’’, Combating Transnational Crime, Concepts, Activities and Response, Ed. Williams Phil, Vlassis Dimitri, Psychology Press, 2001.

Musto, David F., The American Disease, Origins of Narcotic Control, Yale University, 1973.

Nadelmann Ethan A., ‘‘Global Prohibition Regimes: The Evolution of Norms in International Society’’, International Organization, Vol. 44, No. 4, Autumn 1990, pp. 479-526.

Nadelmann, Ethan Avram, Cops Across Borders: Transnational Crime and International Law Enforcement, Harward University, Theses, 1987.

Natarajan Mangai, Introduction, International Crime and Justice, Ed. Mangai Natarajan, Cambridge University Press 2011.

Natarajan Mangai & Kukaj Antigona, ‘‘The International Criminal Court’’, International Crime and Justice, Ed. Mangai Natarajan, Cambridge University Press, 2011.

Naylor R.T., ‘‘From Cold War to Crime War: The Search for a New “National Security” Threat’’, Transnational Organized Crime, Vol. 1, No. 4, Winter 1995, pp.37-56.

Noll Alfons, ‘‘International Treaties and the Control of Drug Use and Abuse’’, Britsh Journal of Addiction, Vol.79, 1984, pp.17-39.

Parrish Austen L., ‘‘Domestic Responses to Transnational Crime: The Limits of National Law’’, Criminal Law Forum, Volume 23, Issue 4, December 2012, pp.275-293.

Patel Faiza, ‘‘Crime Without Frontiers: A Proposal for an International Narcotics Court’’, New York University Journal of International Law and Politics, vol 22, No.4, Summer, 1990, pp.709-747.

Richards James R.,Transnational Criminal Organizations, Cybercrime, and Money Laundering, CRC Press, 1999.

Robelo Daniel, ‘‘Demand Reduction or Redirection? Channeling Illicit Drug Demand towards a Regulated Supply to Diminish Violence in Latin America’’, Oregon Law Review, Vol. 91, 2013, pp. 1227-1251.

Rollins John, Wyler Liana Sun, Rosen Seth, ‘‘International Terrorism and Transnational Crime: Security Threats, U.S. Policy, and Considerations for Congress’’, Congressional Research Service, January 5, 2010.

Scherrer Amandine, G8 against Transnational Organized Crime, Ashgate Publishing, 2009.

Schloenhardt Andreas, Transnational Organised Crime and the International Criminal Court-Towards Global Criminal Justice, Australian Institute of Criminology International Conference, Melbourne Australia, November 2004.

Schroeder William R., ‘‘Money Laundering: A Global Threat and the International Community’s Response’’, FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, Vol. 70, Issue 5, May 2001, pp.1-9.

Shelley Louise, ‘‘The Globalization of Crime’’, International Crime and Justice, Ed. Mangai Natarajan, Cambridge University Press 2011.

Spapens Toine, ‘‘Macro Networks, Collectives, and Business Processes: An Integrated Approach to Organized Crime’’, European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice 18, 2010, pp.185-215.

Sproule D.W. & St-Denis, Paul, ‘‘The UN Drug Trafficking Convention: An Ambitious Step’’, The Canadian Yearbook of International Law, Vol. 27, 1989, pp.263-270.

Strategy to Combat Transnational Organized Crime, Addressing Converging Threats to National Security, The United States, July 2011.

Surrett William Roy, The International Narcotics Trade, An Overview of its Dimensions, Production Sources and Organizations, Congressional Research Service Report for Congress, 3 October 1988.

Swanstrom Niklas, ‘‘The Narcotics Trade: A Threat to Security? National and Transnational Implications’’, Global Crime, Vol.8, Number 1, 2007, pp.1-25.

Tate James A., ‘‘Eliminating the Nexus Obstacle to the Prosecution of International Drug Traffickers on the High Seas’’, University of Cincinnati Law Review, Vol.77, 2008, pp.267-296.

The Globalization of Crime, A Transnational Organized Crime Threat Assessment, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2010.

Thomas Chantal, ‘‘Disiplining Globalization: International Law, Illegal Trade and the Case of Narcotics’’, Michigan Journal of International Law, Vol. 24, Winter 2003, pp.549-575.

Thomas Chantal, ‘‘Globalization and the Reproduction of Hierarchy’’, U.C. Da- vis Law Review, Summer 2000, Vol.33, pp.1451-1475.

Transnational Organized Crime in Central America and the Caribbean: A Threat Assessment, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2012.

Wagley John R., Transnational Organized Crime: Principal Threats and U.S. Responses, Congressional Research Service, March 2006.

Wang Peng & Wang Jingyi, ‘‘Transnational Crime: Its Containment through International Cooperation’’, Asian Social Science, Vol. 5, No. 11, November 2009, pp.25-32.

Watson Luke, Suppression of Transnational Crime and the Trade in Illegal Drugs, Old Dominion University Model United Nations Society, 2013.

Williams Jenny & Bretteville-Jensen Anne Line, ‘‘Does Liberalizing Cannabis Laws Increase Cannabis Use?’’, Journal of Health Economics, Vol. 36, 2014, pp.20-32.

Williams Phil, ‘‘Transnational Criminal Organisations and International Security’’, Survival: Global Politics and Strategy, Vol.36, No.1, 1994, pp.96-113.

Windle James, ‘‘Afghanistan, Narcotics and the International Criminal Court: From Port of Spain to Kabul, via Rome’’, European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice, Vol. 20, 2012, pp.297-314. World Drug Reports 2005-2010-2012.

Zagaris Bruce, ‘‘U.S. International Cooperation Against Transnational Organized Crime’’ Wayne Law Review, Vol.44, 1998, pp.1401-1464.

Zagaris Bruce, Peratta Julia Padierna ‘‘Mexico-United States Extradition and Alternatives: From Fugitive Slaves to Drug Traffickers - 150 Years and Beyond the Rio Grande’s Winding Courses’’, American University International Law Review, Vol.12, Issue 4, 1997, pp.519-627.

Internet Sources

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX- :52005PC0006,15.07.2014.

http://fpif.org/drug_trafficking_and_money_laundering/,15.07.2014.

http://www.aals.org/profdev/civpro/berman2.pdf,15.07.2014.

http://www.aic.gov.au/conferences/2004/index.html,15.07.2014.

http://www.unodc.org/unodc/treaties/CTOC/,15.07.2014.