Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) play important roles in maintaining normal physiological conditions and, consequently, in animal health. Two PUFAs families, n-6 and n-3 fatty acids (FAs), are physiologically and metabolically distinct. The focus on PUFAs has been gradually extended from the apparent properties of growth performance, antioxidant ability and immune function to the mechanism of molecular regulation and mechanism such as regulating the expression of related genes and the anticancer action mechanism, which strengthen the understanding of the theoretical basis and application of animal husbandry in a range of animal species. The present review focuses on current knowledge related to the origin, biological function and practical application of PUFAs in animal production.
Çoklu doymamış yağ asitleri normal fizyolojik süreçlerin ve bunun sonucu olarak da hayvan sağlığının sağlanmasında önemli rol oynamaktadır. İki çoklu doymamış yağ asitleri ailesi olan n-6 ve n-3 yağ asitleri fizyolojik ve metabolik olarak önemlidir. Büyüme performansı, antioksidan kabiliyeti ve immun fonksiyonlarından moleküler regülasyon ve ilgili genlerin ekspresyonunun ve anti kanser mekanizmaları gibi mekanizmalardaki belirgin özellikleri nedeniyle çoklu doymamış yağ asitlerine ilgi artmıştır. Bu durum pek çok hayvan türünde yetiştiricilik konusunda teorik temellerin anlaşılmasına katkıda bulunmuştur. Bu derleme, çoklu doymamış yağ asitlerinin hayvansal üretimdeki yeri, biyolojik fonksiyonları ve pratik uygulamaları üzerine güncel bilgiye odaklanmıştır.
___
1. Ibrahim D, El-Sayed R, Khater SI, Said EN, El-Mandrawy SAM: Changing dietary n-6:n-3 ratio using different oil sources affects performance, behavior, cytokines mRNA expression and meat fatty acid profile of broiler chickens. Anim Nutr, 4, 44-51, 2018. DOI: 10.1016/j. aninu.2017.08.003
2. Calder PC: Marine omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory processes: effects, mechanisms and clinical relevance. BBA-Mol Cell Biol L, 1851 (4): 469-484, 2015. DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2014.08.010
3. Patterson E, Wall R, Fitzgerald GF, Ross RP, Stanton C: Health implications of high dietary omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Nutr Metab, 2012 (2): 539426, 2012. DOI: 10.1155/2012/539426
4. Das UN: Essential fatty acids: Biochemistry, physiology and pathology. Biotechnol J, 1 (4): 420-439, 2006. DOI: 10.1002/biot.200600012
5. Nano JL, Nobili C, Girard-Pipau F, Rampal P: Effects of fatty acids on the growth of Caco-2 cells. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids, 69 (4): 207-215, 2003. DOI: 10.1016/S0952-3278(03)00083-8
6. Karaman M, Özen H, Dağ S, Atakişi O, Çığşar G, Kaya O: Ameliorative effect of omega-3 in carbon tetrachloride toxicity. Kafkas Univ Vet Fak Derg, 23, 77-85, 2017. DOI: 10.9775/kvfd.2016.15862
7. Sarkadi-Nagy E, Wijendran V, Diau GY, Chao AC, Hsieh AT, Turpeinen A, Lawrence P, Nathanielsz PW, Brenna JT: Formula feeding potentiates docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acid biosynthesis in term and preterm baboon neonates. J Lipid Res, 45 (1): 71-80, 2004. DOI: 10.1194/jlr.M300106-JLR200
8. Calder PC, Yaqoob P: Understanding omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Postgrad Med, 121 (6): 148-157, 2009. DOI:10.3810/pgm.2009.11.2083
9. Moreno C, Macías A, Prieto A, de la Cruz A, González T, Valenzuela C: Effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on cardiac ion channels. Front Physiol, 3 (3): 245, 2012. DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2012.00245
10. Yang LG, Song ZX, Yin H, Wang YY, Shu GF, Lu HX, Wang SK, Sun GJ: Low n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio improves lipid metabolism, inflammation, oxidative stress and endothelial function in rats using plant oils as n-3 fatty acid source. Lipids, 51 (1): 49-59, 2016. DOI: 10.1007/s11745- 015-4091-z
11. Sampath H, Ntambi JM: Polyunsaturated fatty acid regulation of genes of lipid metabolism. Annu Rev Nutr, 25, 317-340, 2005. DOI: 10.1146/ annurev.nutr.25.051804.101917
12. Weaver KL, Ivester P, Seeds M, Douglas Case L, Arm JP, Chilton FH: Effect of Dietary fatty acids on inflammatory gene expression in healthy humans. J Biol Chem, 284 (23): 15400-15407, 2009. DOI: 10.1074/jbc. M109.004861
13. Curtis CL, Hughes CE, Flannery CR, Little CB, Harwood JL, Caterson B: n-3 fatty acids specifically modulate catabolic factors involved in articular cartilage degradation. J Biol Chem, 275 (2): 721-724, 2000. DOI: 10.1074/jbc.275.2.721
14. Sun C, Wei ZW, Li Y: DHA regulates lipogenesis and lipolysis genes in mice adipose and liver. Mol Biol Rep, 38, 731-737, 2011. DOI: 10.1007/ s11033-010-0160-9
15. Calder PC: Dietary modification of inflammation with lipids. Proc Nutr Soc, 61 (3): 345-358, 2002. DOI: 10.1079/PNS2002166
16. Rezamand P, Hatch BP, Carnahan KG, McGuire MA: Effect of α-linolenic acid-enriched diets on gene expression of key inflammatory mediators in immune and milk cells obtained from Holstein dairy cows. J Dairy Res, 83 (1): 20-27, 2016. DOI: 10.1017/S0022029915000709
17. Miyata J, Arita M: Role of omega-3 fatty acids and their metabolites in asthma and allergic diseases. Allergol Int, 64 (1): 27-34, 2015. DOI: 10.1016/j.alit.2014.08.003
18. Sangiovanni JP, Chew EY: The role of omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in health and disease of the retina. Prog Retin Eye Res, 24 (1): 87-138, 2005. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2004.06.002
19. Ballou MA, Cruz GD, Pitroff W, Keisler DH, DePeters EJ: Modifying the acute phase response of Jersey calves by supplementing milk replacer with omega-3 fatty acids from fish oil. J Dairy Sci, 91 (9): 3478-3487, 2008. DOI: 10.3168/jds.2008-1016
20. Kromhout D, Yasuda S, Geleijnse JM, Shimokawa H: Fish oil and omega-3 fatty acids in cardiovascular disease: Do they really work? Eur Heart J, 33 (4): 436-443, 2012. DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehr362
21. Teague H, Harris M, Fenton J, Lallemand P, Shewchuk B, Shaikh SR: Eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acid ethyl esters differentially enhance B-cell activity in murine obesity. J Lipid Res, 55 (7): 1420-1433, 2014. DOI: 10.1194/jlr.M049809
22. Gurzell EA, Teague H, Duriancik D, Clinthorne J, Harris M, Shaikh SR, Fenton JI: Marine fish oils are not equivalent with respect to B-cell membrane organization and activation. J Nutr Biochem, 26 (4): 369-377, 2015. DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2014.11.005
23. Rockett BD, Melton M, Harris M, Bridges LC, Shaikh SR: Fish oil disrupts MHC class II lateral organization on the B-cell side of the immunological synapse independent of B-T cell adhesion. J Nutr Biochem, 24 (11): 1810-1816, 2013. DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2013.02.013
24. Shaikh SR, Jolly CA, Chapkin RS: n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids exert immunomodulatory effects on lymphocytes by targeting plasma membrane molecular organization. Mol Aspects Med, 33 (1): 46-54, 2012. DOI: 10.1016/j.mam.2011.10.002
25. Jump DB: n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid regulation of hepatic gene transcription. Curr Opin Lipidol, 19 (3): 242-247, 2008. DOI: 10.1097/ MOL.0b013e3282ffaf6a
26. Kota BP, Huang TH, Roufogalis BD: An overview on biological mechanisms of PPARs. Pharmacol Res, 51 (2): 85-94, 2005. DOI: 10.1016/j. phrs.2004.07.012
27. Lefebvre P, Chinetti G, Fruchart JC, Staels B: Sorting out the roles of PPAR alpha in energy metabolism and vascular horneostasis. J Clin Invest, 16, 571-580, 2006. DOI: 10.1172/JCI27989
28. Hanada T, Yoshimura A: Regulation of cytokine signaling and inflammation. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev, 13 (4-5): 413-421, 2002. DOI: 10.1016/S1359-6101(02)00026-6
29. Abdulla NR, Loh TC, Akit H, Sazili AQ, Foo HL, Mohamad R, Abdul Rahim R, Ebrahimi M, Sabow AB: Fatty acid profile, cholesterol and oxidative status in broiler chicken breast muscle fed different dietary oil sources and calcium levels. S Afr J Anim Sci, 45 (2): 153-163, 2015. DOI: 10.4314/sajas.v45i2.6
30. Kanakri K, Carragher J, Hughes R, Muhlhausler B, Gibson R: The effect of different dietary fats on the fatty acid composition of several tissues in broiler chickens. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol, 120 (1): 1700237, 2018. DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.201700237
31. Kanakri K, Carragher J, Hughes R, Muhlhausler B, Gibson R: A reduced cost strategy for enriching chicken meat with omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids using dietary flaxseed oil. Br Poult Sci, 58, 283-289, 2017. DOI: 10.1080/00071668.2017.1293798
32. Kanakri K, Muhlhausler B, Carragher J, Gibson R, Barekatain R, Dekoning C, Drake K, Hughes R: Relationship between the fatty acid composition of uropygial gland secretion and blood of meat chickens receiving different dietary fats. Anim Prod Sci, 58 (5): 828-833, 2016. DOI: 10.1071/AN16268
33. Milanković B, Ćirić J, Krstić M, Starčević M, Baltić B, Šefer D, Đorđević V, Popović M, Marković R: Effect of dietary fatty acid pattern on growth performance, carcass characteristics, fatty acid profile, and serum biochemistry parameters in broiler chickens. Kafkas Univ Vet Fak Derg, 25 (4): 507-516, 2019. DOI: 10.9775/kvfd.2018.21205
34. Zhang W, Xiao S, Samaraweera H, Lee EJ, Ahn DU: Improving functional value of meat products. Meat Sci, 86 (1): 15-31, 2010. DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2010.04.018
35. Konieczka P, Czauderna M, Smulikowska S: The enrichment of chicken meat with omega-3 fatty acids by dietary fish oil or its mixture with rapeseed or flaxseed-effect of feeding duration. Anim Feed Sci Technol, 223 (1): 42-52, 2017. DOI: 10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2016.10.023
36. López-Ferrer S, Baucells MD, Barroeta AC, Grashorn MA: n-3 enrichment of chicken meat. 1. Use of very long-chain fatty acids in chicken diets and their influence on meat quality: Fish oil. Poult Sci, 80 (6): 741-752, 2001.
37. Nain S, Renema RA, Korver DR, Zuidhof MJ: Characterization of the n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid enrichment in laying hens fed an extruded flax enrichment source. Poult Sci, 91 (7): 1720-1732, 2012. DOI: 10.3382/ ps.2011-02048
38. Wolf C, Ulbrich SE, Kreuzer M, Berard J, Giller K: Differential partitioning of rumen-protected n-3 and n-6 fatty acids into muscles with different metabolism. Meat Sci, 137 (3): 106-113, 2018. DOI: 10.1016/j. meatsci.2017.11.007
39. Fu SJ, Guo SJ, Shen ZQ, Zhang ZM: Effect of emulsified fat powder on the laying performance, egg quality, serum biochemical parameters and antioxidant activity. J Chem Pharm Res, 8 (7): 176-181, 2016.
40. Fu SJ, Guo SJ, Shen ZQ: Effects of polyunsaturated fatty acids on immune response of avian. J Chem Pharm Res, 9 (4): 334-337, 2017.
41. Motlagh MK: Effect ofomega-3 resource on glucose and total protein in ostriches. Kafkas Univ Vet Fak Derg, 21, 225-228, 2015. DOI: 10.9775/ kvfd.2014.12083
42. Wang YW, Field CJ, Sim JS: Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids alter lymphocyte subset proportion and proliferation, serum immunoglobulin G concentration, and immune tissue development in chicks. Poult Sci, 79 (12): 1741-1748, 2000. DOI: 10.1093/ps/79.12.1741
43. Al-Khalifa H, Givens DI, Rymer C, Yaqoob P: Effect of n-3 fatty acids on immune function in broiler chickens. Poult Sci, 91 (1): 74-88, 2012. DOI: 10.3382/ps.2011-01693
44. SøborgHusted K, Bouzinova EV: The importance of n-6/n-3 fatty acids ratio in the major depressive disorder. Medicina, 52 (3): 139-147, 2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.medici.2016.05.003
45. Ibrahim D, El-Sayed R, Khater SI, Said EN, El-Mandrawy SAM: Changing dietary n-6:n-3 ratio using different oil sources affects performance, behavior, cytokines mRNA expression and meat fatty acid profile of broiler chickens. Anim Nutr, 4 (1): 44-51, 2018. DOI: 10.1016/j. aninu.2017.08.003
46. Pena FJ, Macias GB, Samper JC, Aparicio IM, Tapia JA, Ortega FC: Dissecting the molecular damage to stallion spermatozoa: The way to improve current cryopreservation protocols? Theriogenology, 76 (7): 1177-1186, 2011. DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2011.06.023
47. Blesbois E, Douard V, Germain M, Boniface P, Pellet F: Effects of n-3 polyunsaturated dietary supplementation on the reproductive capacity of male turkeys. Theriogenology, 61 (2): 537-549, 2004. DOI: 10.1016/ S0093-691X(03)00207-3
48. Innis SM: Metabolic programming of long-term outcomes due to fatty acid nutrition in early life. Matern Child Nutr, 7 (S2): 112-123, 2011. DOI: 10.1111/j.1740-8709.2011.00318.x
49. Missotten J, De Smet S, Raes K, Doran O: Effect of supplementation of the maternal diet with fish oil or linseed oil on fatty-acid composition and expression of Δ5- and Δ6-desaturase in tissues of female piglets. Animal, 3 (8): 1196-1204, 2009. DOI: 10.1017/S1751731109004455
50. Vicente JG, Isabel B, Cordero G, Lopez-Bote CJ: Fatty acid profile of the sow diet alters fat metabolism and fatty acid composition in weanling pigs. Anim Feed Sci Technol, 181 (1-4): 45-53, 2013. DOI: 10.1016/j. anifeedsci.2013.02.002
51. Ci L, Sun HL, Huang YP, Guo J, Albrecht E, Zhao RQ, Yang XJ: Maternal dietary fat affects the LT muscle fatty acid composition of progeny at weaning and finishing stages in pigs. Meat Sci, 96 (3): 1141- 1146, 2014. DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2013.10.033
52. Sobol M, Raj S, Skiba G: Effect of fat content in primal cuts of pigs fed diet enriched in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on health-promoting properties of pork. J Anim Feed Sci, 25 (1): 20-28, 2016. DOI: 10.22358/ jafs/65583/2016
53. Alvarez-Rodriguez J, Villalba D, Cubilo D, Babot D, Tor M: Organic practices and gender are effective strategies to provide healthy pork loin. J Integ Agr, 15 (3): 608-617, 2016. DOI: 10.1016/S2095-3119(15)61172-8
54. Sobol M, Skiba G, Raj S: Effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake on its deposition in the body of growing-finishing pigs. Anim Feed Sci Technol, 208, 107-118, 2015. DOI: 10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2015.06.027
55. Waterhouse KE, Hofmo PO, Tverdal A, Miller RR: Within and between breed differences in freezing tolerance and plasma membrane fatty acid composition of boar sperm. Reproduction, 131 (5): 887-894, 2006. DOI: 10.1530/rep.1.01049
56. Estienne MJ, Harper AF, Crawford RJ: Dietary supplementation with a source of omega-3 fatty acids increases sperm number and the duration of ejaculation in boars. Theriogenology, 70 (1): 70-76, 2008. DOI: 10.1016/j. theriogenology.2008.02.007
57. Esmaeili V, Shahverdi AH, Alizadeh AR, Alipour H, Chehrazi M: Saturated, omega-6 and omega-3 dietary fatty acid effects on the characteristics of fresh, frozen-thawed semen and blood parameters in rams. Andrologia, 46 (1): 42-49, 2014. DOI: 10.1111/and.12040
58. Lin Y, Cheng X, Mao J, Wu D, Ren B, Xu SY, Fang ZF, Che LQ, Wu CM, Li J: Effects of different dietary n-6/n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ratios on boar reproduction. Lipids Health Dis, 15: 31, 2016. DOI:10.1186/ s12944-016-0193-8
59. Nazir G, Ghuman SP, Singh J, Honparkhe M, Ahuja CS, Dhaliwal GS, Sangha MK, Saijpaul S, Agarwal SK: Improvement of conception rate in postpartum flaxseed supplemented buffalo with Ovsynch+CIDR protocol. Anim Reprod Sci, 137 (1-2): 15-22, 2013. DOI: 10.1016/j. anireprosci.2012.11.012
60. Mahla AS, Chaudhari RK, Verma AK, Singh AK, Singh SK, Singh G, Sarkar M, Dutta N, Kumar H, Krishnaswamy N: Effect of dietary supplementation of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) rich fish oil on reproductive performance of the goat (Capra hircus). Theriogenology, 99, 79-89, 2017. DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2017.05.023
61. Tran LV, Malla BA, Kumar S, Tyagi AK: Polyunsaturated fatty acids in male ruminant reproduction-A review. Asian-Australas J Anim Sci, 30 (5): 622-637, 2017. DOI: 10.5713/ajas.15.1034
62. Samadian F, Towhidi A, Rezayazdi K, Bahreini M: Effects of dietary n-3 fatty acids on characteristics and lipid composition of ovine sperm. Animal, 4 (2): 2017-2022, 2010. DOI: 10.1017/S1751731110001308
63. Fair S, Doyle DN, Diskin MG, Hennessy AA, Kenny DA: The effect of dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation of rams on semen quality and subsequent quality of liquid stored semen. Teriogenology, 81, 210-219, 2014. DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2013.09.002
64. Radmanesh A, Kuhi HD, Riaci A: Relationship of dietary fat sources with semen characteristics, blood plasma metabolites and scrotal circumference in mature rams. Iranian J Appl Anim Sci, 5, 623-628, 2015.
65. Dolatpanah MB, Towhidi A, Farshad A, Rashidi A, Rezayazdi A: Effects of dietary fish oil on semen quality of goats. Asian-Australas J Anim Sci, 21, 29-34, 2008. DOI: 10.5713/ajas.2008.70035
66. Adeel M, Ijaz A, Aleem M, Rehman H, Yousaf MS, Jabbar MA: Improvement of liquid and frozen-thawed semen quality of Nili-Ravi buffalo bulls (Bubalus bubalis) through supplementation of fat. Teriogenology, 71 (8): 1220-1225, 2009. DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2009.01.008
67. Santos AX, Kahwage PR, Faturi C, Neto QT, Junior JBLL, Joele MRSP, Garcia AR: Feed supplementation with palm kernel cake-based concentrate increases the quality of water buffalo semen. Anim Reprod, 11 (2): 85-95, 2014.
68. Brinsko SP, Varner DD, Love CC, Blanchard TL, Day BC, Wilson ME: Effect of feeding a DHA-enriched nutriceutical on the quality of fresh, cooled and frozen stallion semen. Theriogenology, 63 (5): 1519-1527, 2005. DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2004.07.010
69. Moallem U, Neta N, Zeron Y, Zachut M, Roth Z: Dietary α-linolenic acid from flaxseed oil or eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids from fsh oil differentially alter fatty acid composition and characteristics of fresh and frozen-thawed bull semen. Teriogenology, 83(7): 1110-1120, 2015. DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2014.12.008
70. Khoshvaght A, Towhidi A, Zare-Shahneh A, Noruozi M, Zhandi M, Dadashpour Davachi N, Karimi R: Dietary n-3 PUFAs improve fresh and post-thaw semen quality in Holstein bulls via alteration of sperm fatty acid composition. Theriogenology, 85 (5): 807-812, 2016. DOI: 10.1016/j. theriogenology.2015.10.023
71. Ponnampalam EN, Sinclairt AJ, Egan AR, Blakeley SJ, Leury BJ: Effect of diets containing n-3 fatty acids on muscle long-chain n-3 fatty acid content in lambs fed low- and medium-quality roughage diets. J Anim Sci, 79 (3): 698-706, 2001. DOI: 10.2527/2001.793698x
72. Demirel G, Wachira AM, Sinclair LA, Wilkinson RG, Wood JD, Enser M: Effects of dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, breed and dietary vitamin E on the fatty acids of lamb muscle, liver and adipose tissue. Br J Nutr, 91 (4): 551-565, 2004. DOI: 10.1079/BJN20031079
73. Kim SC, Adesogan AT, Badinga L, Staples CR: Effects of dietary n-6:n-3 fatty acid ratio on feed intake, digestibility, and fatty acid profiles of the ruminal contents, liver, and muscle of growing lambs. J Anim Sci, 85 (3): 706-716, 2007. DOI: 10.2527/jas.2006-289
74. Chilliard Y, Glasser F, Ferlay A, Bernard L, Rouel J, Doreau M: Diet, rumen biohydrogenation and nutritional quality of cow and goat milk fat. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol, 109 (8): 828-855, 2007. DOI: 10.1002/ ejlt.200700080
75. Huws SA, Lee MRF, Muetzel SM, Scott MB, Wallace RJ, Scollan ND: Forage type and fish oil cause shifts in rumen bacterial diversity. FEMS Microbiol Ecol, 73 (2): 396-702, 2010. DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6941. 2010.00892.x
76. Whitlock LA, Schingoethe DJ, Hippen AR, Kalscheur KF, Baer RJ, Ramaswamy N, Kasperson KM: Fish oil and extruded soybeans fed in combination increase conjugated linoleic acids in milk of dairy cows more than when fed separately. J Dairy Sci, 85 (1): 234-243, 2002. DOI: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(02)74072-1
77. AbuGhazaleh AA, Holmes LD: Diet supplementation with fish oil and sunflower oil to increase conjugated linoleic acid levels in milk fat of partially grazing dairy cows. J Dairy Sci, 90 (6): 2897-2904, 2007. DOI: 10.3168/jds.2006-684
78. Zhao TZ, Ma Y, Qu YH, Luo HL, Liu K, Zuo ZY, Lu XN: Effect of dietary oil sources on fatty acid composition of ruminal digesta and populations of specific bacteria involved in hydrogenation of 18-carbon unsaturated fatty acid in finishing lambs. Small Ruminant Res, 144, 126-134, 2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.smallrumres.2016.06.012