Islamophobia in the Representations of Islam and Muslims by the British Government between 2001 and 2007

Batı Avrupada yaşayan ciddi bir Müslüman nüfus vardır ve bu Müslümanların İs- lamofobi sebebiyle marjinal hale getirilmelerine ilişkin kaygı duyulmaktadır. Sansasyoncumedyanın ve Aşırı Sağ grupların İslamofobiyi canlı tutmaktaki rolü hakkında epey yorumyapılmışsa da, ana akım siyasetçilerin İslamofobiyi beslemedeki rolleri pek araştırılmamıştır.Bu makale, Tony Blairin İşçi Partisi hükümetinin 2001 ve 2007 yılları arasındaki konuş- malarında Müslümanları ve İslamı nasıl sunduklarını inceliyor ve bu temsillerin sık sıkİslamofobik bir karakter taşıdığını iddia ediyor. Söylem analizi yöntemi kullanılarak yapılançözümleme, bu etkili bakanlarca yapılan 111 konuşmaya odaklanıyor. Makale ayrıca çokkültürlülük, Britanyalılık, entegrasyon ve terörizm gibi ilişkili meseleleri çevreleyen söylemiele alıyor. Çalışmada İslam ve Müslümanlara dair genellemeler, faraziyeler ve stereotiplerdenmüteşekkil bir İslamofobinin bu konuşmalarda bulunduğu iddia ediliyor. Dolayısıyla bumakale, İslam ve Müslümanları damgalamada ve İslamofobiyi sürekli kılmada ana akımpolitikacıların da dahil olduğu üsluba karşı farkındalık çağrısı yapmakta, son dönemlerinönemli bir siyasi iktidarında da yansımaları görülen Müslüman karşıtı önyargılara ilişkintartışmaya katkıda bulunmaktadır.

2001-2007 Arasında Britanya Hükümetinin İslam a ve Müslümanlara İlişkin Temsillerinde İslamofobi

There is a significant population of Muslims living in Western Europe and alsoa significant concern that these Muslims are marginalised due to Islamophobia. While therole of sensationalist media and Far Right groups in perpetuating Islamophobia has beenwidely commented on, not enough attention has been given to the role played by mainstreampoliticians in fostering Islamophobia. This paper considers how Tony Blair s New Labourgovernment represented Islam and Muslims in speeches given between 2001 and 2007 arguingthat the representations were often Islamophobic. Using discourse analysis, the analysis engageswith 111 speeches made by these influential ministers. The paper also discusses the discoursesurrounding related issues such as multiculturalism, Britishness, integration, and terrorism.It is argued that Islamophobia based on generalisations, assumptions and stereotypes of Islamand Muslims are present in the speeches. Thus, this article calls for an awareness of the wayin which mainstream politicians have been involved in stigmatising Islam and Muslims,and perpetuating Islamophobia. This paper contributes to discussions about anti-Muslimprejudice as well as reflecting on the legacy of an important recent political dynasty.

PDF

___

Abbas, T. 2006. Islamic Political Radicalisation in Britain: Appraising an Emergent Phenomenon. In: A. A. Malik, ed. The State We Are In: Identity, Terror and the Law of J ihad. Bristol: Amal Press, xi-xix Abou El Fadl, K. 2002. The Place of Tolerance in Islam. Boston: Beacon Press Abou El Fadl, K. 2004. Islam and the Challenge of Democracy . Princeton: Princeton University Press Abou El Fadl, K. 2007. The Great Thef t: Wrestling Islam f rom the Extremists. New York: HarperSanFrancisco Abukhattala, I. 2004. The New Bogeyman under the Bed: Image Formation of Islam in the Western School Curriculum and Media. In: J. L. Kincheloe. and S. R. Steinberg, eds. The Miseducation of the West: How Schools and the Media Distort Our Understanding of the Islamic World. Westport: Praeger Publishers, 153-170 Al Sayyad, N. 2002. Muslim Europe or Euro-Islam: On the Discourses of Identity and Culture. In: N. Al Sayyad, and M. Castells, eds. Muslim Europ e or Euro-Islam: Politics, Culture, and Citizenship in the Age of Globalization. Lanham: Lexington Books, 9-29 Alibhai-Brown, Y. 2000. Who Do We Think We Are? Imagining the New Britain. London: Penguin Allen, C. 2003. Fair J ustice: The Bradf ord Disturbances, the Sentencing and the Imp act. London: Forum against Islamophobia and Racism (FAIR) Ameli, S. R., Marani, S. M., Ahmed, S., Kara, S. and Merali, A. 2007. British Muslims Exp ectations of the Government: The British Media and Muslim Rep resentation: The Ideology of Demonisation. London: Islamic Human Rights Commission Ansari, H. 2002. Muslims in Britain. London: Minority Rights Group Ansari, H. 2004. Processes of Institutionalisation of Islam in England and Wales, 1830s-1930s. In: J. Malik, ed. Muslims in Europ e: From the Margin to the Centre. Münster: Lit Verlag, 35-48 Baumann, G. 1998. Contesting Culture: Discourses of Identity in Multi-Ethnic London. Cambridge: Cambridge University PressBeckett, M. 2006. Terrorism: Def eating the Threat. 9th November. Available from: http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/ ratePage&c=Page&cid=1007029391647&a=KArticle&aid=1161596135654 [accessed 16/06/07] Beynon, H. and Kushnick, L. (2003). Cool Britannia or Cruel Britannia? Racism and New Labour. Socialist Register. 39: 229-244 Bin Talal, E. H. 2004. To Be A Muslim: Islam, Peace, and Democracy . Brighton: Sussex Academic Press Blair, T. 2001a. Tony Blair Interview: Full Transcrip t. 19th September. Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1552265.stm [accessed 17/06/07] Blair, T. 2001b. Prime Ministers Meeting With Leaders of the Muslim Communities in Britain. 27th September. Available from: http://www. number-10.gov.uk/output/Page1605.asp [accessed 17/06/07] Blair, T. 2001c. Blair Statement in Full. 7th October. Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/1585238.stm [accessed 16/06/07] Blair, T. 2001d. Newsnight: The Prime Minister. 10th October. Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/events/newsnight/1596085.stm [accessed 16/06/07] Blair, T. 2001e. Sp eech by Prime Minister Tony Blair to the Welsh Assembly . 30th October. Available from: http://www.number-10.gov.uk/output/ Page1636.asp [accessed 16/06/07] Blair, T. 2003a. Prime Ministers Sp eech to the US Congress. 18th July. Available from: http://www.number-10.gov.uk/output/Page4220.asp [accessed 17/06/07] Blair, T. 2003b. Press Conf erence: Prime Minister Tony Blair and President George W. Bush. 20th November. Available from: http://www.number-10.gov. uk/output/Page5004.asp [accessed 17/06/07] Blair, T. 2004. EU Aid. 31st March. Available from: http://www. publications .parliament.uk/pa/cm200304/cmhansrd/vo04033 1/ debtext/40331-03.htm [accessed 17/06/07] Blair, T. 2005a. In Full: Blair on Bomb Blasts. 7th July. Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4659953.stm [accessed 17/06/07] Blair, T. 2005b. PM s Press Conf erence. 5th August. Available from: http:// www.number10.gov.uk/output/Page8041.asp [accessed 17/06/07] Blair, T. 2006a. Examination of Witnesses (Questions 340-359) . 4th July. Available from: http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200506/ cmselect/cmliaisn/709/6070404.htm [accessed 17/06/07] Blair, T. 2006b. Sp eech to the Los Angeles World Aff airs Council. 1st August. Available from: http://www.number10.gov.uk/output/page9948.asp [accessed 16/06/07] Blair, T. 2006c. PM s Monthly Press Conf erence. 17th October. Available from: http://www.number-10.gov.uk/output/Page10228.asp [accessed 17/06/07] Blair, T. 2006d. Our Nations Future: Multiculturalism and Integration. 8th December. Available from: http://www.number-10.gov.uk/output/ Page10563.asp [accessed 15/06/07] Blair, T. 2006e. A Battle f or Global Values: The Roots of Extremism. 28th December. Available from: http://www.foreignaffairs. org/20070101faessay86106/tony-blair/a-battle-for-globalvalues html [accessed 16/06/07] Blair, T. 2007. Sp eech to the International Conf erence on Islam and Muslims in the World Today . 4th June. Available from: http://www.number-10.gov.uk/ output/Page11826.asp [accessed 17/06/07] Blankley, T. 2005. The Wests Last Chance: Will We Win the Clash of Civilizations? Washington: Regnery Publishing Blears, H. 2005. Muslim Police Stops More Likely . 2nd March. Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/4309961.stm [accessed 15/06/07] Blears, H. 2006. Tolerance, Freedom and Resp ect: Sp eech by Hazel Blears MP. 16th August. Available from: http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/about_ the_cabinet_office/speeches/hblears/pdf/capetown.pdf [accessed 15/06/07] Blears, H. 2007a. Minister Without Portf olio Hazel Blears, Sp eech to the National Imams and Rabbis Conf erence. 26th March. Available from: http:// www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/newsroom/news_releases/2007/070326_rabbis. asp [accessed 15/06/07] Blears, H. 2007b. Blears in Pledge to City Muslims. 2nd July. Available from: http://icbirmingham.icnetwork.co.uk/birminghampost/news/tm_ headline=blears-inpledge-to-city-muslims%26method=full%26objectid=193 92442%26siteid=50002-name_page.html [accessed 15/06/07] Blunkett, D. 2001. Blunkett Off ers Supp ort to Muslims. 5th October. Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/1581746.stm [accessed 15/06/07] Blunkett, D. 2002a. Blunkett Riot Comments Off ensive. 6th September. Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/2241121.stm [accessed 15/06/07] Blunkett, D. 2002b. What Does Citizenship Mean Today ? 15th September. Available from: http://www.blacklondon.org.uk/news/2002/20020915a.htm [accessed 15/06/07] Blunkett, D. 2003. Blunkett Def iant af ter Archbishop s Attacks on Detention. 22nd December. Available from: http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_ qn4158/is_20031222/ai_n12717983 [accessed 15/06/07] Blunkett, D. 2004. New Immigration Rules on Switching and Ministers of Religion. 22nd July. Available from: http://www.gnn.gov.uk/Content/Detail. asp?ReleaseID=124314&NewsAreaID=2&print=true [accessed 15/06/07] Bradley, I. 2007. Believing in Britain: The Sp iritual Identity of Britishness. London: I. B. Tauris Brown, G. 2006a. Brown Sp eech Promotes Britishness. 14th January. Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4611682.stm [accessed 15/06/07] Brown, G. 2006b. Full Text: Brown Sp eech. 13th February. Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4708816.stm [accessed 15/06/07] Brown, G. 2006c. In Full: Gordon Browns Sp eech. 25th September. Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/5378312.stm [accessed 15/06/07] Cesari, J. 2004. When Islam and Democracy Meet: Muslims in Europ e and in the United States. New York: Palgrave Macmillan Choudhury, T. 2005. Muslims in the UK: Policies f or Engaged Citizens. Budapest: Open Society Institute Clarke, C. 2005a. Tackling Terrorism: Behaviours Unaccep table in the UK. 24th August. Available from: http://press.homeoffice.gov.uk/press-releases/ Tackling_Terrorism-Behaviours_Un?version=1 [accessed 15/06/07] Clarke, C. 2005b. Contesting the Threat of Terrorism. 21st October. Available from: http://www.heritage.org/Research/HomelandDefense/hl902. cfm [accessed 15/06/07] Clifford, A. C. 2006. Christianity, Islam, and British Politics. London: Charenton Reformed Publishing Dodd, P. 2002. The Challenge for New Labour. In: P. Griffith. and M. Leonard, eds. Reclaiming Britishness. London: The Foreign Policy Centre, 2-6 Elia, N. 2006. Islamophobia and the Privileging of Arab American Women. NWSA Journal. 18 (3), 155-161 EUMC. 2006. The Imp act of 7 J uly 2005 London Bomb Attacks on Muslim Communities in the EU. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities Fekete, L. 2006. Racial Profiling and the War on Terror. In: E. Poole, and J. E. Richardson, eds. Muslims and the News Media. London: I.B. Tauris, 35-44 Geaves, R. 2004. Who Defines Moderate Islam post-September 11? In: R. Geaves, T. Gabriel, Y. Haddad, and J. I. Smith, eds. Islam and the West Post 9/11. Aldershot: Ashgate, 62-74 Gilroy, P. 2004. Af ter Emp ire: Melancholia or Convivial Culture? Abingdon: Routledge Hain, P. 2002. BBC Breakf ast with Frost Interview: Peter Hain, MP Europ e Minister. 12th May. Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/ breakfast_with_frost/1983109.stm [accessed 16/06/07] Harman, H. 2006. Why I Want To See The Veil Gone From Britain. 16th October. Available from: http://www.newstatesman.com/200610160019 [accessed 15/06/07] Hewitt, R. 2005. White Backlash and the Politics of Multiculturalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Himmat, H. 2004. Islamophobia and its Consequences on Young Women In: I. Ramberg, ed. Islamop hobia and its Consequences on Young Peop le. Budapest: Council of Europe Publishing, 85-89 Holohan, S. 2006. New Labour, Multiculturalism and the Media in Britain. In: E. Poole, and J. E. Richardson, eds. Muslims and the News Media. London: I.B. Tauris, 13-23 Hoyland, R. 2004. Muslims and Others in Early Islamic Society . Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Limited Huntington, S. P. 1997. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. London: Simon & Schuster Jawad, H. 2003. Historical and Contemporary Perspectives of Muslim Women Living in the West. In: H. Jawad, and T. Benn, eds. Muslim Women in the United Kingdom and Bey ond. Leiden: Brill, 1-15 Jenkins, E. 2000. The Muslim Diasp ora: A Comp rehensive Ref erence to the Sp read of Islam in Asia, Af rica, Europ e and the Americas: Volume 2, 1500-1799. Jefferson: McFarland & Company Publishers Johnson, A. 2007. Johnson Says Pup ils Need to Learn Our History to Understand British Values in Citizenship Classes. 25th January. Available from: http://www.dfes.gov.uk/pns/DisplayPN.cgi?pn_id=2007_0012 [accessed 15/06/07] Kalin, I, R. 2004. Roots of Misconception: Euro-American Perceptions of Islam Before and After September 11. In: J. E. B. Lumbard, ed. Islam, Fundamentalism, and the Betrayal of Tradition: Essays by Western Muslim Scholars. Bloomington: World Wisdom, 143-187 Karabell, Z. 2007. Peop le of the Book: The Forgotten History of Islam and the West. London: John Murray Kelly, R. 2006a. Launch of Suf i Muslim Council. 19th July. Available from: http://www.communities.gov.uk/index.asp?id=1501706 [accessed 16/06/07] Kelly, R. 2006b. Launch of the Commission on Integration and Cohesion. 24th August. Available from: http://www.communities.gov.uk/index. asp?id=1502280 [accessed 16/06/07] Kelly, R. 2006c. Britain: Our Values, Our Resp onsibilities. 11th October. Available from: http://www.communities.gov.uk/index.asp?id=1503690 [accessed 16/06/07] Kelly, R. 2006d. Equality and a Cohesive Society . 27th November. Available from: http://www.communities.gov.uk/index.asp?id=1504751 [accessed 16/06/07] Kelly, R. 2007a. Ruth Kelly Sets Out More Supp ort to Isolate Extremists. 7th February. Available from: http://www.communities.gov.uk/index. asp?id=1002882&PressNoticeID=2350 [accessed 16/06/07] Kelly, R. 2007b. Interim Statement of the Commission on Integration and Cohesion. 21st February. Available from: http://www.communities.gov.uk/ index.asp?id=1506358 [accessed 16/06/07] Kelly, R. 2007c. British Muslim Forum Event. 26th February. Available from: http://www.communities.gov.uk/index.asp?id=1508163 [accessed 16/06/07] Kelly, R. 2007d. Winning Hearts and Minds: Working Together to Def eat Extremism. 5th April. Available from: http://www.communities.gov.uk/index. asp?id=1509407 [accessed 16/06/07] Kelly, R. 2007e. Kelly Launches Citizenship Lessons in Bradf ord School. 17th May. Available from: http://www.gnn.gov.uk/Content/Detail. asp?ReleaseID=285202&NewsAreaID=2 [accessed 16/06/07] Kundnani, A. 2007. The End of Tolerance: Racism in 21st-Century Britain. London: Pluto Press Lewis, B. 1994. Islam and the West. New York: Oxford University Press Lockman, Z. 2004. Contending Visions of the Middle East: The History and Politics of Orientalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Lueg, A. 1995. The Perception of Islam in Western Debate. In: J. Hippler and A. Lueg, eds. The Next Threat: Western Percep tions of Islam. London: Pluto Press, 7-31 Lumbard, J. E. B. 2004. Islam, Fundamentalism, and the Betrayal of Tradition: Essays by Western Muslim Scholars. Bloomington: World Wisdom Mahmood, S. 2004. Is Liberalism Islams Only Answer? In: K. Abou El Fadl, ed. Islam and the Challenge of Democracy . Princeton: Princeton University Press, 74-77 Malik, N. 2004a. Equality? The Treatment of Muslims under the English Legal System. In: M. S. Seddon, D. Hussain, and N. Malik, eds. British Muslims between Assimilation and Segregation: Historical, Legal and Social Realities. Markfield: The Islamic Foundation, 43-81 Malik, I. H. 2004b. Islam and Modernity : Muslims in Europ e and the United States. London: Pluto Press Malik, J. 2004c. Muslims in Europ e: From the Margin to the Centre. Münster: Lit Verlag Malik, A. A. 2006. The State We Are In: Identity, Terror and the Law of J ihad. Bristol: Amal Press Mandaville, P. P. 2002. Muslim Youth in Europe. In: S. T. Hunter, ed. Islam, Europ es Second Religion: The New Social, Cultural, and Political Landscap e. Westport: Praeger Publishers, 219-229 Mason, D. 2000. Race and Ethnicity in Modern Britain. Oxford: Oxford University Press McGhee, D. 2008. The End of Multiculturalism? Terrorism, Integration and Human Rights. Maidenhead: Open University Press Modood, T. 2003. Multiculturalism, Muslims and the British State. Leeds: The British Association for the Study of Religions Modood, T. 2007. Multiculturalism: A Civic Idea. Cambridge: Polity Press Moussalli, A. S. 2003. The Islamic Quest f or Democracy, Pluralism, and Human Rights. Gainesville: University Press of Florida Nasr, S. N. 2003. Unity and Diversity in Islam and Islamic Civilization. In: A. A. Said. and M. Sharify-Funk, eds. Cultural Diversity and Islam. Lanham: University Press of America, 31-38 Phillips, M. 2007. Londonistan: How Britain is creating a Terror State Within. London: Gibson Square Poole, E. 2000. Framing Islam: An Analysis of Newspaper Coverage of Islam in the British Press. In: K. Hafez, ed. Islam and the West in the Mass Media: Fragmented Images in a Globalized World. Cresskill: Hampton Press, 157-179 Poole, E. 2002. Rep orting Islam: Media Rep resentations of British Muslims. London: I.B. Tauris Ramadan, T. 1999. To Be A Europ ean Muslim: A Study of Islamic Sources in the Europ ean Context. Leicester: The Islamic Foundation Ramadan, T. 2001. Islam, the West and the Challenges of Modernity . Leicester: The Islamic Foundation Reid, J. 2006a. Sp eech to Muslim Group . 20th September. Available from: http://press.homeoffice.gov.uk/Speeches/sp-muslim-group-20-09-06 [accessed 16/06/07] Reid, J. 2006b. In Full: John Reid Sp eech. 28th September. Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/5389542.stm [accessed 16/06/07] Rhodes, J. (2009). Revisiting the 2001 Riots: New Labour and the Rise of Colour Blind Racism. Sociological Research Online. 14 (5). Rohe, M. 2004. The Formation of a European Sharīa. In: J. Malik, ed. Muslims in Europ e: From the Margin to the Centre. Münster: Lit Verlag, 161- 184 Root, M. P. P. 2000. Rethinking Racial Identity Development. In: P. Spickard and W. J. Burroughs, eds. We Are A Peop le: Narrative and Multip licity in Constructing Ethnic Identity . Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 205-220 Said, A. A. and Sharify-Funk, M. 2003. Cultural Diversity and Islam. Lanham: University Press of America Said, E. W. 1978. Orientalism. London: Penguin Books Said, E. W.1997. Covering Islam: How the Media and the Exp erts Determine How We See The Rest of the World. London: Vintage Sajid, A. 2006. Islamophobia: A New World for an Old Fear. In: H. Schenker. and Z. Abu-Zayyad, eds. Islamop hobia and Anti-Semitism. Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers, 1-12 Seddon, M. S. 2004. Muslim Communities in Britain: A Historiography. In: M. S. Seddon, D. Hussain, and N. Malik, eds. British Muslims between Assimilation and Segregation: Historical, Legal and Social Realities. Markfield: The Islamic Foundation, 1-42 Shah-Kazemi, R. 2004. Recollecting the Spirit of Jihād. In: J. E. B. Lumbard, ed. Islam, Fundamentalism, and the Betrayal of Tradition: Essays by Western Muslim Scholars. Bloomington: World Wisdom, 121-142 Skalli, L. 2004. Loving Muslim Women with a Vengeance: The West, Women, and Fundamentalism. In: J. L. Kincheloe. and S. R. Steinberg, eds. The Miseducation of the West: How Schools and the Media Distort Our Understanding of the Islamic World. Westport: Praeger Publishers, 43-57 Stonebanks, C. D. 2004. Consequences of Perceived Ethnic Identities. In: J. L. Kincheloe. and S. R. Steinberg, eds. The Miseducation of the West: How Schools and the Media Distort Our Understanding of the Islamic World. Westport: Praeger Publishers, 87-101 Straw, J. 2002. Engagement with the Islamic World. 25th January. Available from: http://www.oxcis.ac.uk/mpl/Straw.doc [accessed 15/06/07] Straw, J. 2005a. Recep tion to Mark Eid-Al-Fitr: Remarks by Jack Straw. 22nd November. Available from: http://www. f co .g ov.uk /s erv l et/ Front ?p ag enam e =Op enMark et/X cel erat e/ owPage&c=Page&cid=1134650519501&a=KArticle&aid=1132595690626 [accessed 15/06/07] Straw, J. 2005b. A Dialogue of Cultures: Foreign Secretary Sp eech at FPA Dinner. 29th November. Available from: http:// www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ owPage&c=Page&cid=1134650519501&a=KArticle&aid=1132598063898 [accessed 15/06/07] Straw, J. 2006a. I Felt Uneasy Talking to Someone I Couldnt See. 6th October. Available from: http://politics.guardian.co.uk/labour/story/0,,1888847,00. html [accessed 16/06/07] Straw, J. 2006b. Straw Trump ets Workp lace Tinsel. 7th December. Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/6218214.stm [accessed 16/06/07] Straw, J. 2007a. Cy ril Foster Lecture, Oxf ord University . 25th January. Available from: http://www.commonsleader.gov.uk/output/page1851.asp [accessed 15/06/07] Straw, J. 2007b. We Need a British Story . 29th April. Available from: http://www.martinfrost.ws/htmlfiles/april2007/british_story.html [accessed 15/06/07] The Runnymede Trust. 1997. Islamop hobia: A Challenge f or Us All: Rep ort of the Runny mede Trust Commission on British Muslims and Islamop hobia. London: The Runnymede Trust Van de Weyer, R. 2001. Islam and the West: A New Political and Religious Order Post Sep tember 11. Kuala Lumpur: Synergy Books International Voll, J. O. 2003. Pluralism and Islamic Perspectives on Cultural Diversity. In: A. A. Said. and M. Sharify-Funk, eds. Cultural Diversity and Islam. Lanham: University Press of America, 119-128 Waardenburg, J. 2003. Muslims and Others: Relations in Context. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter Walker, C. J. 2005. Islam and the West: A Dissonant Harmony of Civilisations. Stroud: Sutton Publishing Werbner, P. 2002. Imagined Diasp oras among Manchester Muslims: The Public Perf ormance of Pakistani Transnational Identity Politics. Oxford: James Currey Winder, R. 2005. Bloody Foreigners: The Story of Immigration to Britain. London: Abacus