Gastrointestinal Sistem ve Endokrinoloji

Gastrointestinal traktusun normal çalışması birçok farklı hormon ve nöroendokrin maddenin uyumlu etkileşimine bağlıdır. Di- ğer taraftan karaciğer pek çok hormona yanıt veren bir organdır. Karaciğerin birçok metabolik işlevi hormonlarla kontrol edildiği gibi aynı zamanda birçok hormonun metabolizma ve klerens yeri de karaciğerdir. Bu nedenle gastrointestinal ve endokrin sistemlerin hastalıkları karşılıklı olarak birbirlerini etkiler.

___

  • 1. Halline AG. Gastrointestinal manifestations of endocrine disease. In: Becker KL, ed. Principles and Practice of Endocrinology and Metabolism. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2001: 1865-82.
  • 2. Kaneko K, Arai M, Funatomi H, et al. Change in immunoreactive insulin, C-peptide immunoreactivity, and immunoreactive glucagon in acute viral hepatitis. J Gastroenterol 1995;30:624-31.
  • 3. Bucher ML, Swaffield MN. Regulation of hepatic regeneration in rats by synergistic action of insulin and glucagon. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1975;72:1157.
  • 4. Arky RA. Hypoglycemia associated with liver disease and ethanol. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1989;18:75-93.
  • 5. Van Thiel DH. The liver and the endocrine system. In: Arias IM, Jakoby WB, Popper H, et al., eds. The liver: biology and pathobiology. New York: Raven Press, 1988;1007-28.
  • 6. De Maria N, Colantoni A, Van Thiel DH. The liver and endocrine functi￾on. In: Becker KL, ed. Principles and Practice of Endocrinology and Metabolism. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2001: 1870- 912.
  • 7. Kingston ME, Ali MA, Atiyeh M, Donnelly RJ. Diabetes mellitus in chronic active hepatitis nad cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 1984;87:688-704.
  • 8. Collins JR, Crofford OB. Glucose intolerance and insulin resistance in patients with liver disease . Arch Intern Med 1969;124:142-56.
  • 9. Kruszynska YT, Home PD, McIntyre N. Relationship between insulin sensitivity, insulin secretion, and glucose tolerance in cirrhosis. Hepatology 1991;14:103-11.
  • 10. Ballmann M, Hartmann H, Deacon CF, et al. Hypersecretion of proinsu￾lin does not explain the hyperinsulinemia of patients with liver cirrhosis. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1986;25:351-8.
  • 11. Siegel EG, Seidenstuker A, Gallwitz B, et al. Insulin secretion defects in liver cirrhosis can be reversed by glucagon-like peptide 1. J Endocrinol 2000;164:13-8.
  • 12. Petrides AS, Schulze-Berge D, Vogt C, et al. Glucose resistance contributes to diabetes mellitus in cirrhosis. Hepatology 1993;18:284-92.
  • 13. Taylor R, Heine RJ, Collins J, et al. Insulin action in cirrhosis. Hepatology 1985;5:64-9.
  • 14. Petrides AS, Vogt C, Schulze-Berge D, et al. Pathogenesis of glucose intolerance and diabetes mellitus in cirrhosis. Hepatology 1994;19:616- 27.
  • 15. Riggio O, Merli M, Cangiano C, et al. Glucose intolerance in liver cirrhosis. Metabolism 1982;31:627-34.
  • 16. Vidal J, Ferrer JP, Esmatjes E, et al. Diabetes mellitus in patients with liver cirrhosis. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 1994;25:19-26.
  • 17. Rittinghaus EF, Juppner H, Burdelski M, Hesch RD. Selective determination of C-terminal (70-84) hPTH: elevated concentrations in cholestatic liver disease. Acta Endocrinol 1986;111:62-9.
  • 18. Bouillon R, Auwerx J, Dekeyser L, et al. Serum vitamin D metabolites and their binding proteins in patients with liver cirrhosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1984;59:86-91.
  • 19. Crippin JS, Jorgensen RA, Dickson ER, Lindor KD. Hepatic osteodyst￾rophy in primary biliary cirrhosis. Effects of medical treatment. Am J Gastroenterol 1994;89:47-54.
  • 20. Janes C, Dickson ER, Bonde S, Riggs BL. Bilirubin inhibits proliferation in cultured normal human osteoblast-like cells: a possible mechanism for bone loss in primary biliary cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 1992;102:A827-36.
  • 21. Ilan Y, Oren R, Tur-Kaspa R. Elevated growth hormone levels in patients with non-alcoholic chronic liver disease. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1993;8:448-54.
  • 22. Moller S, Gronbaek M, Main K, et al. Urinary growth hormone (U-GH) excretion and serum insulin-like growth factor 1(IGF-1) in patients with alcoholic cirrhosis. J Hepatol 1993;17:315-23.
  • 23. Ross DS, Daniels GH, Dienstag JL, Ridgway EC. Elevated thyroxine le￾vels due to increased thyroxine binding globulin in acute hepatitis. Am J Med 1983;74:564-70.
  • 24. Schlusser GC, Schaffner F, Korn F. Increased serum thyroid hormone binding and decreased free hormone in chronic active liver disease. N Engl J Med 1978;299:510-6.
  • 25. Gardner DF, Carithers RL, Utiger RD. Thyroid function tests in patients with acute and resolved hepatitis B virus infection. Ann Intern Med 1982;96:450-8.
  • 26. Hepner GW, Chopra IJ. Serum thyroid hormone levels in patients with liver disease. Arch Intern Med 1979;139:1117-22.
  • 27. Kano T, Kojima T, Takahashi T, Muto Y. Serum thyroid hormone levels in patients with fulminant hepatitis: usefulness of rT3 and the rT3/T3 ratio as prognostic indices. Gastroenterol Jpn 1987;22(3):344-9.
  • 28. Chopra IJ, Hershman JM, Pardridge WM, Nicoloff JT. Thyroid function in nonthyroidal ilness. Ann Intern Med 1983;98:946-53.
  • 29. Itoh S, Matsuo S, Oda T, et al. Triiodothyronine level and triiodothyroni￾ne/thyroxine ratio in HbAg-positive chronic hepatitis patients treated with prednisolone-withdrawal. Dg Did Sci 1990;35:1110-6.
  • 30. Nomura S, Pittman CS, Chambers JB, et al. Reduced peripheral conver￾sion of thyroxine to triiodothyronine in patients with hepatic cirrhosis. J Clin Invest. 1975;56:643-7.
  • 31. Van Thiel DH, Gavaler JS, Tarter RE, et al. Pituitary and thyroid hormo￾ne levels before and after orthotopic hepatic transplantation and their responses to thyrotropin-releasing hormone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985;60:569-74.
  • 32. Woeber K, Maddux B. Thyroid hormone binding in nonthyroid illness. Metabolism 1981;30:412-6.
  • 33. Van Thiel DH, Tarter R, Gavaler JS, et al. Thyroid and pituitary hormone responses to TRH in advanced nonalcoholic liver disease. J Endocri￾nol Invest 1986;9:479-86.
  • 34. Borst GC, Osburne RC, O’Brian JT, et al. Fasting decreases thyrotropin responsiveness to thyrotropin-releasing hormone: a potential cause of misinterpretation of thyroid function tests in the critically ill. J Clin En￾docrinol Metab 1983;57:380-6.
  • 35. Williams GR, Franklyn JA, Neuberger JM, Sheppard MC. Thyroid hor￾mone receptor expression in the “sick euthyroid” syndrome. Lancet 1989;2:1477-83.
  • 36. Cooper DS, Daniels GH, Ladenson PW, Ridgeway EC. Hyperthyroxine￾mia in patients treated with high dose propranolol. Am J Med 1982;73:867-72.
  • 37. Felicetta JV, Green WL, Melp WB. Inhibition of hepatic binding of thyro￾xine by cholesystographic agents. J Clin Invest 1980;65:1032-9.
  • 38. Taniguchi Y, Murakami T, Nakanishi K, et al. Two cases of hypothyro￾idism associated with alpha-interferon therapy. Intern Med 1992;31:373-9.
  • 39. Barreca T, Picciotto A, Franceschini R, et al. Long term therapy with re￾combinant interferon alpha 2b in patients with chronic hepatitis C: ef￾fects on thyroid function and autoantibodies. J Biol Regul Homeost Agents 1993;7:58-64.
  • 40. Demelia L, Solinas A, Poma R, et al. Hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal function in liver cirrhosis of viral etiology. Ann Ital Med Int 1991;6:203- 9.
  • 41. Frezza EE, Gerunda GE, Farinati F, et al. Sex hormones and trace ele￾ments in rat CCL4-induced cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Eur J Cancer Prev 1993;2:357-66.
  • 42. Walton C, Kelly WF, Laing I, Bulock OE. Endocrine abnormalities in idi￾opathic hemochromatosis. QJ Med 1983;52:99-105.
  • 43. Piperno A, Rivolta MR, D’Alba R, et al. Preclinical hypogonadism in ge￾netic hemochromatosis in the early stage of the disease: evidence of hypothalamic dysfunction. J Endocrinol Invest 1992;15:423-33.
  • 44. Rose LI, Underwood RH, Newmark SR, et al. Pathophsiology of spirono￾lactone-induced gynecomastia. Ann Intern Med 1977;87:398-406.
  • 45. Van Thiel DH, Gavaler JS, Schade RR. Liver disease and the hypothala￾mic-pituitary-gonadal axis. Semin Liver Dis 1985;5:35-44.
  • 46. Taheri S, Meeran K, Bloom S. Endocrine tumors of the gastrointestinal tract. In: Becker KL, ed. Principles and Practice of Endocrinology and Metabolism. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2001: 2015-38.
  • 47. Modlin IM, Sandor A. An analysis of 8305 cases of carcinoid tumors. Cancer 1997;79:813-29.
  • 48. Rindi G, Luinetto O, Cornaggia M, et al. Three subtypes of gastric argy￾rophil carcinoid and the gastric neuroendocrine carcinoma: a clinical pathologic study. Gastroenterology 1993;104:994-1006.
  • 49. Maton PN, Hodgson HJF. Carcinoid tumours and the carcinoid syndro￾me. In:Bouchier IAD, Allan RN, Hodgson HJF, Keighly MRB, eds. Text￾book of gastroenterology. London. Bailliere-Tindall, 1984:620-48.
  • 50. Feldman JM, Zakin D, Dannenberg AJ. Carcinoid tumors and syndrome. Semin Oncol 1987;14:237-49.
  • 51. Maton PN, Dayal Y. Clinical implications of hypergastrinemia. In: Zakim DH, Dannenberg AJ, eds. Peptic ulcer disease and other acid-related disorders. New York:Academic Research Associates, 1991:213-28.
  • 52. Bordi C, Falchetti A, Azzoni C, et al. Aggressive forms of gastric neuro￾endocrine tumors in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1. Am J Surg Pathol 1997;21:1075-91.
  • 53. Grahame-Smith DG. The carcinoid syndrome. London: William Heine￾mann, 1972.
  • 54. Moertel CG. An odyssey in the land of small tumors. J Clin Oncol 1987;5:1503-9.
  • 55. Nobels FR, Kwekkeboom DJ, Coopmans W. Chromogranin A as a serum marker for neuroendocrine neoplasia: comparison with neuron-speci￾fic enolase and the alpha subunit of glycoprotein hormones. J Clin En￾docrinol Metab. 1997;82:2622-7
  • 56. Debelenko LV, Emmert-Buck MR, Zhuang Z, et al. The multiple endocri￾ne neoplasia type 1 gene locus is involved in the pathogenesis type II gastric carcinoids. Gastroenterology 1997;113:773-86.
  • 57. Maton PM. Carcinoid tumor and the carcinoid syndrome. In: Becker KL, ed. Principles and Practice of Endocrinology and Metabolism. Phila￾delphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2001: 2021-37.
  • 58. Roberts LJ, Marney SR, Oates JA. Blockade of the flush associated with metastatic gastric carcinoid by combined H1 and H2 receptor an￾tagonists: evidence for an important role of H2 receptors in human vasculature. N Engl J Med 1979;300:236-44.
  • 59. Sakai D, Mukakami M, Kasazoe K, Tsutsumi Y. Ileal carcinoid tumor complicating carcinoid heart disease and secondary retroperitoneal fibrosis. Pathol Int 2000;50:404-13.
  • 60. Moss SF, Lehner PJ, Gilbey SG, et al. Pleural involvement in the carci￾noid syndrome. QJ Med 1993;86:49-55.
  • 61. Lederman RJ, Bukowski RM, Nickelson P. Carcinoid myopathy. Cleve Clin J Med 1987;54:299-307.
  • 62. Young DS, Pestaner LC, Gibberman V. Effects of drugs on clinical labo￾ratory tests. Clin Chem 1975;21:398D-417D.
  • 63. Norton JA. Neuroendocrine tumors of the pancreas and duodenum. Curr Probl Surg 1994;31:77-99.
  • 64. Moertel CG, Kvols LK, Rubin J. A study of cyproheptadine in the treat￾ment of metastatic carcinoid tumor and the malignant carcinoid syndrome. Cancer 1991;67:33-8.
  • 65. Zollinger RM, Ellison EH. Primary peptic ulceration of the jejunum asso￾ciated with islet cell tumors of the pancreas. Ann Surg 1955;142:709-18.
  • 66. Jensen RT. Gastrointestinal endocrine tumours. Gastrinoma. Balliere’s Clin Gastroenterol. 1996;10(4):673-7.
  • 67. Verner JV, Morrison AB. Islet cell tumor and a syndrome of refractory diarrhea and hypokalemia. Am J Med 1958;25:374-8.
  • 68. Frankton S, Bloom SR. Gastrointestinal endocrine tumours. Glucagono￾mas. Balliere’s Clin Gastroenterol 1996;10(4):673-9.
  • 69. Kreihs GJ, Orci L, Conlon JM, et al. Somatostatinoma syndrome. N Engl J Med 1979;301:285-91.
  • 70. Griffiths DF, Williams Gt, Williams ED. Duodenal carcinoid tumors, pha￾eochromocytoma and the Von Hippel-Lindau complex: two distinctive neuroendocrine syndromes. QJ Med 1987;64:769-75.
  • 71. Bloom SR, Polak JM. Somatostatin. BMJ 1987;295:288-96.
  • 72. Adrian TE, Lettenthal LO, Williams SJ, Bloom SR. Secretion of pancre￾atic polypeptide in patients with pancreatic endocrine tumors. N Engl J Med. 1986;315:287-95.
  • 73. Blackburn AM, Bryant MG, Adrian TE, Bloom SR. Pancreatic tumors producing neurotensin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1981;52:820-5.
  • 74. Calam J, Unwin R, Peart WS. Neurotensin stimulates defaecation. Lan￾cet 1983;1:737-42.
  • 75. Holst JJ. Enteroglucagon. Ann Rev Physiol. 1997;59:257-64.
  • 76. Bishop AE, Polak JM. Gastrointestinal endocrine tumours. Pathology. Bailliere’s Clin Gastroenterol 1996;10(4):555-74.
  • 77. Nobels FRE, Kwekkeboom DJ, Bouillon R, et al. Chromogranin A: its clinical value as marker of neuroendocrine tumors. Eur J Clin Invest 1998;28:431-8.
  • 78. Sekiya K, Ghatei MA, Salahuddin MJ, et al. Production of GAWK (Chromogranin-B 420-493)-like immunoreactivity by endocrine tumors and its possible diagnostic value. J Clin Invest 1989;83:1834-42.