Directed motivational currents: An agenda for future research

Directed motivational currents (DMCs) encapsulate a unique motivational phenomenon. DMCs are highly positive, potent motivational experiences which can carry individuals or groups forwards to achieving valued goals at both a remarkable rate, and with a perceived feeling of seemingly ‘effortless effort’. Although research into DMCs began under a decade ago (Dörnyei, Ibrahim & Muir, 2015; Dörnyei, Muir & Ibrahim, 2014; Henry, Davydenko & Dörnyei, 2015; Muir & Dörnyei, 2013), the motivational experience DMCs encapsulate is, in and of itself, certainly not novel. DMCs appear to be widely recognizable in diverse contexts, and may even be relatively widely experienced (Muir, 2020). The theoretical underpinning of DMC theory draws together findings from a broad range of well-established motivational disciplines in related areas of psychology (including cognitive and educational psychology), alongside motivation research rooted more fully in the context of language learning (LLing) and teaching. We begin by overviewing the DMC construct itself, outlining key cornerstones and primary theoretical principles that underpin our understanding of each. We go on to lay out a broad agenda for further study, continuing the discussion in the final chapter of Muir (2020), by foregrounding six avenues for future research. Viewed together, they are demonstrative of the scope of future research potential surrounding DMC theory, incorporating both theoretical and applied (pedagogic) directions for inquiry. For each future avenue that we propose, we foreground several more specific directions in which research effort might begin.

___

  • Badstübner, T., & Ecke, P. (2009). Student expectations, motivations, target language use, and perceived learning progress in a summer study abroad program in Germany. Die Unterrichtspraxis/Teaching
  • German, 42(1), 41–49. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1756-1221.2009.00034.x
  • Bandura, A., & Schunk, D. H. (1981). Cultivating competence, self-efficacy, and intrinsic interest through proximal self-motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41(3), 586–598. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.41.3.586
  • Başöz, T., & Erten, İ. H. (2018). Investigating tertiary level EFL learners’ willingness to communicate in English. English Language Teaching, 11(3), 78–87. http://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v11n3p78
  • Başöz, T., & Erten, İ. H. (2019). A qualitative inquiry into the factors influencing EFL learners’ in-class willingness to communicate in English. Novitas-ROYAL (Research on Youth and Language), 13(1), 1–18.
  • Baumann, N. (2012). Autotelic personality. In S. Engeser (Ed.), Advances in flow research (165–186). New York: Springer.
  • Beckett, G. H., & Chamness Miller, P. (Eds.) (2006). Project-based Second and Foreign Language Education: Past, Present and Future. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.
  • Beckett, G. H. & Slater, T. (Eds.) (2020). Global Perspectives on Project-based Language Learning, Teaching, and Assessment: Key Approaches, Technology Tools, and Frameworks. Abingdon, Oxford: Routledge.
  • Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). NEO personality inventory professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
  • Churchill, E. & DuFon, M. A. (2006). Evolving threads in study abroad research. In M. A. DuFon & E.
  • Churchill (Eds.), Language learners in study abroad contexts (1–27). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975/2000). Beyond boredom and anxiety. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
  • Csizér, K. (2019). The L2 motivational self system. In M. Lamb, K. Csizér, A. Henry & S. Ryan (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of motivation for language learning (71–93). London: Palgrave MacMillan.
  • Davis, B., & Sumara, D. (2006). Complexity and Education: Enquiries into Learning, Teaching and Research. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
  • Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The L2 motivational self system. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, Language Identity and the L2 Self (9–42). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
  • Dörnyei, Z. (2014). Researching complex dynamic systems: ‘Retrodictive qualitative modelling’ in the language classroom. Language Teaching, 47(1), 80–91. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444811000516
  • Dörnyei, Z. (2019). Task motivation: What makes an L2 task engaging? In Z. Wen & M. J. Ahmadian (Eds.), Researching L2 task performance and pedagogy: In honour of Peter Skehan (53–66). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
  • Dörnyei, Z. (2020). Innovations and challenges in language learning motivation. London: Routledge.
  • Dörnyei, Z., Henry, A., & Muir, C. (2016). Motivational currents in language learning: Frameworks for focused interventions. New York: Routledge.
  • Dörnyei, Z., Ibrahim, Z., & Muir, C. (2015). ‘Directed Motivational Currents’: Regulating complex dynamic systems through motivational surges. In Z. Dörnyei, P. D. MacIntyre & A. Henry (Eds.), Motivational Dynamics in Language Learning (95–105). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
  • Dörnyei, Z., & Muir, C. (2019). Creating a motivating classroom environment. In X. A. Gao (Ed.), Second Handbook of English Language Teaching (719–736). New York: Springer.
  • Dörnyei, Z., Muir, C., & Ibrahim, Z. (2014). Directed motivational currents: Energising language learning through creating intense motivational pathways. In D. Lasagabaster, A. Doiz & J. M. Sierra (Eds.), Motivation and Foreign Language Learning: From Theory to Practice (9–29). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
  • Duff, P. (2020). Case study research: Making language learning complexities visible. In J. McKinley & H. Rose (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Research Methods in Applied Linguistics (144–153). Oxford: Routledge.
  • Elliot, A. J., Eder, A. B., & Harmon–Jones, E. (2013). Approach–avoidance motivation and emotion: Convergence and divergence. Emotion Review, 5, 308–311. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073913477517
  • Erten, İ. H., & Altay, M. (2009). The effects of task-based group activities on students’ collaborative behaviours in EFL speaking classes. Journal of Theory and Practice in Education, 5(1), 33–52.
  • Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74(1), 59–109. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543074001059
  • Fryer, M., & Roger, P. (2018). Transformations in the L2 self: Changing motivation in a study abroad context. System, 78, 159–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2018.08.005
  • Ghanizadeh, A., & Jahedizadeh, S. (2017). Directed motivational currents: The implementation of the dynamic web-based Persian scale among Iranian EFL learners. Journal of Language Teaching Skills, 36(1), 27–56. https://doi.org/10.22099/jtls.2017.23952.2159
  • Gümüş, Ö. (2019). Exploring directed motivational currents of English as a foreign language learners at the tertiary level through the dynamic systems perspective. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Hacettepe, Turkey.
  • Gras-Velazquez, A. (Ed.) (2020). Project-Based Learning in Second Language Acquisition: Building Communities of Practice in Higher Education. London: Routledge.
  • Henry, A. (2019). Directed motivational currents. In M. Lamb, K. Csizér, A. Henry & S. Ryan (Eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of Motivation for Language Learning (139–162). Basingstoke: Palgrave.
  • Henry, A., & Davydenko, S. (2020). Thriving? Or Surviving? An approach-avoidance perspective on adult language learners’ motivation. The Modern Language Journal, 104(2), 363–380. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12635
  • Henry, A., Davydenko, S., & Dörnyei, Z. (2015). The anatomy of directed motivational currents: Exploring intense and enduring periods of L2 motivation. Modern Language Journal, 99(2), 329–345. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12214
  • Hiver, P., & Al-Hoorie, A. (2020). Research methods for complexity theory in applied Linguistics. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
  • Hiver, P., Al-Hoorie, A., & Mercer, S. (2020). Student Engagement in the Language Classroom. Bristol: Multilingual Matters
  • Hiver, P., & Papi, M. (2019). Complexity theory and L2 motivation. In M. Lamb, K. Csizér, A. Henry & S. Ryan (Eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of Motivation for Language Learning (117–138). Basingstoke: Palgrave.
  • Ibrahim, Z. (2016). Affect in directed motivational currents: Positive emotionality in long-term L2 engagement. In P. MacIntyre, T. Gregersen & S. Mercer (Eds.), Positive Psychology in Second Language Acquisition (258–281). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
  • Ibrahim, Z. (2017). Parameters inducing motivational surges in second language learning. UKH Journal of Social Sciences, 1(1), 24–33. http://doi.org/10.25079/ukhjss.v1n1y2017.pp24-33
  • Johnson, J. A., Keiser, H. N., Skarin, E. M. & Ross, S. R. (2014). The Dispositional flow scale–2 as a measure of autotelic personality: An examination of criterion related validity. Journal of Personality Assessment, 96, 465–470. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2014.891524
  • Keller, J., & Bless, H. (2008). Flow and regulatory compatibility: An experimental approach to the flow model of intrinsic motivation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 196–209. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167207310026
  • Keller, J., & Blomann, F. (2008). Locus of control and the flow experience: An experimental analysis. European Journal of Personality, 22, 589–607. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.692
  • Kinginger, C. (2011). Enhancing language learning in study abroad. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 31, 58–73. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190511000031
  • Lenton, A. P., Bruder, M., Slabu, L., & Sedikides, C. (2013). How does ‘being real’ feel? The experience of state authenticity. Journal of Personality, 8(3), 276–289. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2012.00805.x
  • Locke, E. A. & Latham, G. P. (2006). New directions in goal-setting theory. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15(5), 265–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2006.00449.x
  • McKinley, J. (2020). Introduction: Theorizing research methods in the ‘golden age’ of applied linguistics research. In J. McKinley & H. Rose (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Research Methods in Applied Linguistics (1–12). Abingdon, Oxford: Routledge.
  • Mercer, S. (2019). Language learner engagement: Setting the scene. In A. Gao (Ed.), Second Handbook of English Language Teaching. New York: Springer.
  • Mercer, S., & Dörnyei, Z. (2020). Engaging Language Learners in Contemporary Classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Muir, C. (2019). Motivation and Projects. In M. Lamb, K. Csizér, A. Henry & S. Ryan (Eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of Motivation for Language Learning (327–346). Basingstoke: Palgrave.
  • Muir, C. (2020). Directed motivational currents and language education: Exploring implications for pedagogy. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
  • Muir, C. (2021). Investigating group-DMCs and complexity in the L2 classroom. In R. Sampson & R. Pinner (Eds.), Complexity Perspectives on Researching Language Learner and Teacher Psychology (189–207). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
  • Muir, C., & Dörnyei, Z. (2013). Directed motivational currents: Using vision to create effective motivational pathways. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 3(3), 357–375. https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2013.3.3.3
  • Muir, C., Florent, J., & Leach, D. (2020). Managing motivational group projects. Journal of Languages, Texts and Society, 4.
  • Papi, M., Bondarenko, A. V., Mansouri, S., Feng, L., & Jiang, C. (2019). Rethinking L2 motivation research: The 2 × 2 model of L2 self-guides. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 41, 337–361. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263118000153
  • Pietluch, A. (2018). Extraordinary motivation or a high sense of personal agency: The role of self-efficacy in the Directed Motivational Currents theory. New Horizons in English Studies, 3, 45–56. https://doi.org/10.17951/nh.2018.45
  • Pietluch, A. (2019). Stimulating educational growth through vision and self-efficacy: a case study of adult users of English as a foreign language. Crossroads: A Journal of English Studies, 27, 58–76. https://doi.org/10.15290/cr.2019.27.4.04
  • Ross, S. R., & Keiser, H. N. (2014). Autotelic personality through a five-factor lens: Individual differences in flow-propensity. Personality and Individual Differences, 59, 3–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.09.029
  • Safdari, S., & Maftoon, P. (2017). The rise and fall of directed motivational currents: A case study. Journal of Language Teaching and Learning, 7(1), 43–54.
  • Sak, M. (2019). Contextual factors that enhance and impair directed motivational currents in instructed l2 classroom settings. Novitas-ROYAL (Research on Youth and Language), 13(2), 155-174.
  • Sampson, R. (2016). Complexity in Classroom Foreign Language Learning Motivation. A Practitioner Perspective from Japan. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
  • Selçuk, Ö. & Erten, İ. H. (2017). A display of patterns of change in learners' motivation: Dynamics perspective. Novitas-ROYAL (Research on Youth and Language), 11(2), 128–141.
  • Sheldon, K. M., & Elliot, A. J. (1999). Goal striving, need satisfaction, and longitudinal well-being: The self-concordance model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(3), 482–497. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.3.482
  • Sinatra, G. M., Heddy, B. C., & Lombardi, D. (2015). The challenges of defining and measuring student engagement in science. Educational Psychologist, 50(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2014.1002924
  • Stoller, F. (2006). Establishing a theoretical foundation for project-based learning in second and foreign language contexts. In G. H. Beckett & P. Chamness Miller (Eds.), Project-based Second and Foreign Language Education (19–40). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.
  • Swann, C., Keegan, R. J., Piggott, D., & Crust, L. (2012). A systematic review of the experience, occurrence, and controllability of flow states in elite sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13(6), 807–819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.05.006
  • Teng, C.-I. (2011). Who are likely to experience flow? Impact of temperament and character on flow. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(6), 863-868. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.01.012
  • Ueki, M. & Takeuchi, O. (2016). The impact of studying abroad experience on the affective changes related to L2 motivation: A qualitative study of the processes of change. In M. Apple, D. Da Silva & T. Fellner (Eds.), L2 Selves and Motivations in Asian Contexts (119–133). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
  • Ullén, F., Harmat, L., Theorell, T., & Madison, G. (2016). Flow and individual differences–a phenotypic analysis of data from more than 10,000 twin individuals. In L. Harmat, F. Ørsted Andersen, F. Ullén, J.
  • Wright & G. Sadlo (Eds.), Flow experience (267–288). Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.
  • Ullén, F., de Manzano, Ö., Almeida, R., Magnusson, P. K., Pedersen, N. L., Nakamura, J., Csíkszentmihályi, M., & Madison, G. (2012). Proneness for psychological flow in everyday life: Associations with personality and intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 52, 167-172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.10.003
  • Ushioda, E. (2016). Language learning motivation through a small lens: A research agenda. Language Teaching, 49(4), 564-577. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444816000173
  • Vlaeva, D. (under review). Enhancing L2 motivation through video self-modelling: Insights from an exploratory study. Language Learning & Technology.
  • Waterman, A. S. (1993). Two conceptions of happiness: Contrasts of personal expressiveness (eudaimonia) and hedonic enjoyment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64(4), 678–691. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.64.4.678
  • Zarrinabadi, N., Ketabi, S., & Tavakoli, M. (2019). Directed Motivational Currents in L2: Exploring the Effects on Self and Communication. Cham: Springer.
  • Zarrinabadi, N., & Tavakoli, M. (2017). Exploring motivational surges among Iranian EFL teacher trainees: Directed motivational currents in focus. TESOL Quarterly, 51(1), 155–166. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.332