Türkiye’s Penal Reform on Domestic Violence: From the Opuz Case to the 2020s

Among the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries, Türkiye has the highest prevalence of violence against women (VAW). Turkish legislators have had to keep developing their penal regulations regarding VAW and domestic violence in particular. The study has adopted feminist legal theory as its theoretical perspective and aims first to reveal the nature and extent of the phenomenon of domestic violence in Türkiye in light of the cases Opuz v. Türkiye (2009) and Huseyin Pasali and Others v. Türkiye (2020) that were brought before the European Court of Human Rights. These two symbolic domestic violence cases in Turkish history have triggered a penal reform regarding the issue. Despite Türkiye announcing its withdrawal from the Istanbul Convention in 2021, the international covenants Türkiye has ratified provide significant guidance for Turkish legislators. With the most recent additions to the Turkish Criminal Code in the 2020s, penal regulations have attained a relatively more gender-sensitive character. With the 2021 and 2022 amendments, divorced women and women in general have been well recognized as particular victim groups in the Turkish context. Intentional killing, intentional injury, torment, and deprivation of liberty committed against a divorced spouse have been regulated as aggravating circumstances of the crimes in question. Moreover, prosecuting these crimes does not require a complaint in the current law. Alongside this, the criminalization of stalking and prohibition of mediation in relation to stalking are also significant developments. Intentional aggravated murder of a woman now qualifies this crime to require life imprisonment. New provisions also increase the lower terms of the punishment in relation to the crimes of injury, torture, torment, and threats when committed against a woman. All these reforms seem to ignore some gender dimensions of the problem, namely the gender of the offenders and the motives behind the crimes. However, these are still significant in terms of acknowledging the vulnerable and subordinate status of female victims in Türkiye in relation to such crimes. In light of the costs the Turkish State has paid historically, these relatively gender-sensitive penal regulations are promising for Türkiye’s struggle with VAW. Now, the future can be built on the argument that VAW is a gender-based problem that involves not only female subordination or vulnerability but also male supremacy, which Turkish legislators should consider more when enacting penal provisions.

Keywords:

Domestic violence, violence against women, penal reform, feminist legal theory Türkiye,

PDF

___

Abdel-Monem, T. 2009. “Opuz v. Turkey: Europe’s Landmark Judgment on Violence against Women” Human Rights Brief 17(1): 29-33. google scholar
Altınay, A. G. and Y. Arat. 2007. Türkiye’de Kadına Yönelik Şiddet/Violence against Women in Turkey. İstanbul: Punto. google scholar
Amnesty International. 2004. Turkey: Women Confronting Family Violence. London: Amnesty International. google scholar
Anıl, E., C. Arın, A. B. Hacımirzaoglu, M. Bingöllü, P. İlkkaracan and L. E. Amado. 2005. Turkish Civil and Penal Code Reforms from a Gender Perspective: The Success ofTwo Nationwide Campaigns. İstanbul: WWHR - New Ways. google scholar
Artuk, M. E., A. Gökçen, M. E. Alşahin and K. Çakır. 2021. Türk Ceza Hukuku Özel Hükümler/Turkish Criminal Law Special Provisions. Ankara: Adalet. google scholar
Ayata, G., S. Eryılmaz, and S. Kalem. 2011. Ailenin Korunmasina Dair Kanun Kimi ve Neyi Koruyor? Hâkim, Savcı, Avukat Anlatıları/Who and What are Protected by Family Protection Law? Narratives from Judges, Prosecutors, and Lawyers. İstanbul: Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları/Bilgi University Publications. google scholar
Burton, M. 2008. Legal Responses to Domestic Violence. New York: Routledge-Cavendish. google scholar
Centel, N. 2013. “Ceza Hukuku Şiddete Karşı Kadını Koruyor mu?/Does Criminal Law Protect Women against Violence?” in Centel, N. (ed.) Ceza Hukukunda Kadının Şiddete Karşı Korunması/Protection of Women in Criminal Law. İstanbul: On İki Levha. google scholar
Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Law No. 2709. Official Gazette Publication Date: 9/11/1982. google scholar
Constitutional Court Decision No. 2008/37, Official Gazette Date and Number: 29/03/2008-26831. google scholar
Constitutional Court Decision No. 2020/28, Official Gazette Date and Number: 11/09/2020-31241. google scholar
Constitutional Court Decision No. 2023/4, Official Gazette Date and Number: 15/2/2023-32105. google scholar
Council of Europe (CoE). 2011. Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence - Istanbul Convention. CETS No. 210. google scholar
Council of Europe (CoE). 2011. Explanatory Report: Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. google scholar
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), Adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession by General Assembly Resolution 34/180 of 18 December 1979, Entry into Force 3 September 1981. google scholar
Danisi, C. 2011. “How far can the European Court of Human Rights Go in the Fight against Discrimination? Defining New Standards in its Non-Discrimination Jurisprudence” International Journal of Constitutional Law 9(3-4): 793-807. google scholar
Dempsey, M. M. 2009. Prosecuting Domestic Violence: A Philosophical Analysis. New York: Oxford University Press. google scholar
ECtHR, OPUZ v. TURKEY, Application No: 33401/02, 9 June 2009. (Available at: http://www.echr.coe.int/ECHR/EN/Header/CaseLaw/Decisions+and+judg google scholar
ECtHR, PAŞALI AND OTHERS v. TURKEY, Application No: 26029/11, 03/03/2020. (Available at:https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-202296). google scholar
Erbaş, R. 2021. “Effective Criminal Investigations for Women Victims of Domestic Violence: The Approach of the ECtHR” Women’s Studies International Forum, 86:1-12. google scholar
European Convention on Human Rights as amended by Protocols Nos. 11 and 14, CETS No. 5 (1 June 2010). google scholar
Fineman, M. A. 1992. “Feminist Theory in Law: The Difference It Makes” Columbia Journal of Gender and Law 2: 1-23. google scholar
Fineman, M. A. 2005. “Feminist Legal Theory” Journal of Gender, Social Policy & The Law 13: 13-24. google scholar
Gavison, R. 1992. “Feminism and the Public/Private Distinction” Stanford Law Review 45: 1-32. google scholar
General Directorate on the Status of Women (GDSW). 2009. National Research on Domestic Violence against Women in Turkey - Summary Report/Türkiye’de Kadına Yönelik Aile İçi Şiddet Araştırması - Özet Rapor. Ankara: GDSW Publication. google scholar
General Directorate on the Status of Women (GDSW). 2014. National Research on Domestic Violence against Women in Turkey - Summary Report/Türkiye’de Kadına Yönelik Aile İçi Şiddet Araştırması - Özet Rapor. Ankara: GDSW Publication. google scholar
Gordon, M. 2000. “Definitional Issues in Violence against Women: Surveillance and Research from a Violence Research Perspective” Violence Against Women 6(7): 747-783. google scholar
Group of Experts on Action against Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (GREVIO)’s (Baseline) Evaluation Report on Legislative and Other Measures Giving Effect to the Provisions of the Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (Istanbul Convention): Turkey, Published on 15 October 2018. google scholar
Hanna, C. 1997. “Paradox of Hope: The Crime and Punishment of Domestic Violence” William & Mary Law Review 39: 1505-1584. google scholar
Hams-Short, S. and J. Miles. 2011. Family Law: Text, Cases and Materials - 2nd Edition. New York: Oxford University Press. google scholar
Hart, B. 1996. “Battered Women and the Criminal Justice System” in Buzawa, E. S. and C. G. Buzawa (eds.) Do Arrests and Restraining Orders Work. London: Sage Publications. google scholar
Herring, J. 2004. Family Law - 2nd Edition. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. google scholar
Human Rights Watch. 2011. He Loves You, He Beats You - Family Violence in Turkey and Access to Protection. New York: Human Rights Watch. google scholar
Karınca, E. 2008. Kadına Yönelik Aile İçi Şiddetle İlgili Ulusal ve Uluslararası Yasal Düzenlemeler/National and International Legal Regulations regarding Domestic Violence against Women. Ankara: KSGM. google scholar
Kaye, J. S. and S. K. Knipps. 2000. “Judicial Responses to Domestic Violence: The Case for a Problem Solving Approach” Western State University Law Review 27: 1-14. google scholar
Koca, M. and İ. Üzülmez. 2022. Türk Ceza Hukuku Özel Hükümler/Turkish Criminal Law Special Provisions. Ankara: Adalet. google scholar
Kocacık, F., A. Kutlar, and F. Erselcan. 2007. “Domestic Violence against Women: A Field Study in Turkey” The Social Science Journal 44: 698-720. google scholar
Law on Amending the Criminal Procedure Code and Some Codes. Law No. 7331. Official Gazette Publication Date: 14/7/2021. google scholar
Law on Amending the Criminal Code and Some Codes. Law No. 7406. Official Gazette Publication Date: 27/5/2022. google scholar Law on Protection of the Family. Law No. 4320. Official Gazette Publication Date: 17/1/1998. google scholar
Law on Protection of the Family and Prevention of Violence against Women. Law No. 6284. Official Gazette Publication Date: 20/3/2012. google scholar
MacKinnon, C. A. 1987. Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and Law. Harvard University Press. google scholar
Mazur, R. and L. Aldrich. 2003. What Makes a Domestic Violence Court Work? Lessons from New York. New York: Center for Court Innovation. google scholar
Moroğlu, N. 2012. “Kadına Yönelik Şiddetin Önlenmesi, 6284 sayılı Yasa ve İstanbul Sözleşmesi/Prevention of Violence against Women, Law No. 6284 and Istanbul Convention” TBB Dergisi/Union of Turkish Bar Associations Review 99: 357-380. google scholar
OECD. 2022. Violence Against Women (Indicator). doi: 10.1787/f1eb4876-en (Accessed on 13 September 2022). google scholar
Özar, S. 2022. “Israrlı Takip Suçu (TCK m. 123/A)/The Crime of Stalking (Article 123/A of the Turkish Criminal Code)” Ankara Üniveristesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi 71(3): 1397-1430. google scholar
Özbek, V. Ö., K. Doğan and P. Bacaksız. 2021. Türk Ceza Hukuku Özel Hükümler/Turkish Criminal Law Special Provisions. Ankara: Seçkin. google scholar
Pakır, Y. 2018. Cinsel Saldırı Suçu/Crime of Sexual Assault. Ankara: Adalet. Reece, H. 2006. “The End of Domestic Violence” The Modern Law Review 69(5): 770-791. google scholar
Prime Ministry Family Studies Institute of Türkiye. 1995. Aile İçi Şiddetin Sebep ve Sonuçları/Reasons and Consequences of Domestic Violence. google scholar
Romkens, R. and R. Letschert. 2007. Feasibility Study for a Convention against Domestic Violence. Strasbourg: The Directorate General of Human Rights and Legal Affairs. google scholar
Sancar, T. 2013. Türk Ceza Hukukunda Kadın/Woman in the Turkish Criminal Law. Ankara: Seçkin. google scholar
Şener, U. 2012. 6284 Sayılı Ailenin Korunması ve Kadına Yönelik Şiddetin Önlenmesine Dair Kanun Ne Getiriyor?/What’s New on the Law No. 6284? TEPAV/The Economic Policy Research Foundation of Turkey Evaluation Note. google scholar
Sözüer, A., A. B. Baytaz and T. Kelep Pekmez. 2012. “Türk Ceza Hukukunda Kadın ve Türkiye’de Kadına Yönelik Şiddetin 6284 sayılı Kanun Bağlamında Değerlendirilmesi/Women in the Turkish Criminal Law and the Evaluation of Violence Against Women in Turkey in the Context of Law No. 6284” 2. Uluslararası Suç ve Ceza Film Festivali “Kadına Yönelik Şiddet ve Ayrımcılık” Akademik Programı/The 2nd International Crime and Punishment Film Festival “Violence against Women and Discrimination” Academic Programme (255-287). İstanbul, Turkey. google scholar
Stewart, J. 2005. Specialist Domestic/Family Violence Courts within the Australian Context. Sydney: Australian Domestic and Family Violence Clearinghouse, University of New South Wales. google scholar
Taner, F. G. 2017. Türk Ceza Hukukunda Cinsel Özgürlüğe Karşı Suçlar/Crimes against Sexual Freedom in the Turkish Criminal Law. Ankara: Seçkin. google scholar
Tezcan, D., M. R. Erdem and M. Önok. 2021. Teorik ve Pratik Ceza Özel Hukuku/Theoretical and Practical Criminal Law. Ankara: Seçkin. google scholar
Turkish Criminal Code. Law No. 5237. Official Gazette Publication Date: 12/10/2004. google scholar
Turkish Criminal Procedure Code. Law No. 5271. Official Gazette Publication Date: 17/12/2004. google scholar
United Nations (UN). 1992. The UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) General Recommendation No. 19 on Violence against Women (11th Session). CEDAW/C/1992/L.1/Add.15. google scholar
United Nations (UN). 1993. Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (DEVAW). General Assembly Resolution 48/104. google scholar
UN Women. 2011. Progress of the World’s Women: In Pursuit of Justice. New York: UN Women. google scholar Uygur, G. and T. Sancar. 2005. “Law, Women’s Subordination and Changing Face of the Turkish Legal System in the Example of Article 434 of the Turkish Criminal Code” Eastern European Community Law Journal 1(2): 31-36. google scholar
Yokuş Sevük, H. 2022. Türk Ceza Hukuku Özel Hükümler/Turkish Criminal Law Special Provisions. Ankara: Adalet. google scholar Abdel-Monem, T. 2009. “Opuz v. Turkey: Europe’s Landmark Judgment on Violence against Women” Human Rights Brief 17(1): 29-33. google scholar Altınay, A. G. and Y. Arat. 2007. Türkiye’de Kadına Yönelik Şiddet/Violence against Women in Turkey. İstanbul: Punto. google scholar
Amnesty International. 2004. Turkey: Women Confronting Family Violence. London: Amnesty International. google scholar
Anıl, E., C. Arın, A. B. Hacımirzaoglu, M. Bingöllü, P. İlkkaracan and L. E. Amado. 2005. Turkish Civil and Penal Code Reforms from a Gender Perspective: The Success ofTwo Nationwide Campaigns. İstanbul: WWHR - New Ways. google scholar
Artuk, M. E., A. Gökçen, M. E. Alşahin and K. Çakır. 2021. Türk Ceza Hukuku Özel Hükümler/Turkish Criminal Law Special Provisions. Ankara: Adalet. google scholar
Ayata, G., S. Eryılmaz, and S. Kalem. 2011. Ailenin Korunmasina Dair Kanun Kimi ve Neyi Koruyor? Hâkim, Savcı, Avukat Anlatıları/Who and What are Protected by Family Protection Law? Narratives from Judges, Prosecutors, and Lawyers. İstanbul: Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları/Bilgi University Publications. google scholar
Burton, M. 2008. Legal Responses to Domestic Violence. New York: Routledge-Cavendish. google scholar
Centel, N. 2013. “Ceza Hukuku Şiddete Karşı Kadını Koruyor mu?/Does Criminal Law Protect Women against Violence?” in Centel, N. (ed.) Ceza Hukukunda Kadının Şiddete Karşı Korunması/Protection of Women in Criminal Law. İstanbul: On İki Levha. google scholar
Constitution of the Republic of Turkey. Law No. 2709. Official Gazette Publication Date: 9/11/1982. google scholar
Constitutional Court Decision No. 2008/37, Official Gazette Date and Number: 29/03/2008-26831. google scholar
Constitutional Court Decision No. 2020/28, Official Gazette Date and Number: 11/09/2020-31241. google scholar
Constitutional Court Decision No. 2023/4, Official Gazette Date and Number: 15/2/2023-32105. google scholar
Council of Europe (CoE). 2011. Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence - Istanbul Convention. CETS No. 210. google scholar
Council of Europe (CoE). 2011. Explanatory Report: Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. google scholar
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), Adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession by General Assembly Resolution 34/180 of 18 December 1979, Entry into Force 3 September 1981. google scholar
Danisi, C. 2011. “How far can the European Court of Human Rights Go in the Fight against Discrimination? Defining New Standards in its Non-Discrimination Jurisprudence” International Journal of Constitutional Law 9(3-4): 793-807. google scholar
Dempsey, M. M. 2009. Prosecuting Domestic Violence: A Philosophical Analysis. New York: Oxford University Press. google scholar
ECtHR, OPUZ v. TURKEY, Application No: 33401/02, 9 June 2009. (Available at: http://www.echr.coe.int/ECHR/EN/Header/CaseLaw/Decisions+and+judg google scholar
ECtHR, PAŞALI AND OTHERS v. TURKEY, Application No: 26029/11, 03/03/2020. (Available at:https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-202296). google scholar
Erbaş, R. 2021. “Effective Criminal Investigations for Women Victims of Domestic Violence: The Approach of the ECtHR” Women’s Studies International Forum, 86:1-12. google scholar
European Convention on Human Rights as amended by Protocols Nos. 11 and 14, CETS No. 5 (1 June 2010). google scholar
Fineman, M. A. 1992. “Feminist Theory in Law: The Difference It Makes” Columbia Journal of Gender and Law 2: 1-23. google scholar
Fineman, M. A. 2005. “Feminist Legal Theory” Journal of Gender, Social Policy & The Law 13: 13-24. google scholar
Gavison, R. 1992. “Feminism and the Public/Private Distinction” Stanford Law Review 45: 1-32. google scholar
General Directorate on the Status of Women (GDSW). 2009. National Research on Domestic Violence against Women in Turkey - Summary Report/Türkiye’de Kadına Yönelik Aile İçi Şiddet Araştırması - Özet Rapor. Ankara: GDSW Publication. google scholar
General Directorate on the Status of Women (GDSW). 2014. National Research on Domestic Violence against Women in Turkey - Summary Report/Türkiye’de Kadına Yönelik Aile İçi Şiddet Araştırması - Özet Rapor. Ankara: GDSW Publication. google scholar
Gordon, M. 2000. “Definitional Issues in Violence against Women: Surveillance and Research from a Violence Research Perspective” Violence Against Women 6(7): 747-783. google scholar
Group of Experts on Action against Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (GREVIO)’s (Baseline) Evaluation Report on Legislative and Other Measures Giving Effect to the Provisions of the Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (Istanbul Convention): Turkey, Published on 15 October 2018. google scholar
Hanna, C. 1997. “Paradox of Hope: The Crime and Punishment of Domestic Violence” William & Mary Law Review 39: 1505-1584. google scholar
Hams-Short, S. and J. Miles. 2011. Family Law: Text, Cases and Materials - 2nd Edition. New York: Oxford University Press. google scholar
Hart, B. 1996. “Battered Women and the Criminal Justice System” in Buzawa, E. S. and C. G. Buzawa (eds.) Do Arrests and Restraining Orders Work. London: Sage Publications. google scholar
Herring, J. 2004. Family Law - 2nd Edition. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. google scholar
Human Rights Watch. 2011. He Loves You, He Beats You - Family Violence in Turkey and Access to Protection. New York: Human Rights Watch. google scholar
Karınca, E. 2008. Kadına Yönelik Aile İçi Şiddetle İlgili Ulusal ve Uluslararası Yasal Düzenlemeler/National and International Legal Regulations regarding Domestic Violence against Women. Ankara: KSGM. google scholar
Kaye, J. S. and S. K. Knipps. 2000. “Judicial Responses to Domestic Violence: The Case for a Problem Solving Approach” Western State University Law Review 27: 1-14. google scholar
Koca, M. and İ. Üzülmez. 2022. Türk Ceza Hukuku Özel Hükümler/Turkish Criminal Law Special Provisions. Ankara: Adalet. google scholar
Kocacık, F., A. Kutlar, and F. Erselcan. 2007. “Domestic Violence against Women: A Field Study in Turkey” The Social Science Journal 44: 698-720. google scholar
Law on Amending the Criminal Procedure Code and Some Codes. Law No. 7331. Official Gazette Publication Date: 14/7/2021. google scholar
Law on Amending the Criminal Code and Some Codes. Law No. 7406. Official Gazette Publication Date: 27/5/2022. google scholar
Law on Protection of the Family. Law No. 4320. Official Gazette Publication Date: 17/1/1998. google scholar
Law on Protection of the Family and Prevention of Violence against Women. Law No. 6284. Official Gazette Publication Date: 20/3/2012. google scholar
MacKinnon, C. A. 1987. Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and Law. Harvard University Press. google scholar
Mazur, R. and L. Aldrich. 2003. What Makes a Domestic Violence Court Work? Lessons from New York. New York: Center for Court Innovation. google scholar
Moroğlu, N. 2012. “Kadına Yönelik Şiddetin Önlenmesi, 6284 sayılı Yasa ve İstanbul Sözleşmesi/Prevention of Violence against Women, Law No. 6284 and Istanbul Convention” TBB Dergisi/Union of Turkish Bar Associations Review 99: 357-380. google scholar
OECD. 2022. Violence Against Women (Indicator). doi: 10.1787/f1eb4876-en (Accessed on 13 September 2022). google scholar
Özar, S. 2022. “Israrlı Takip Suçu (TCK m. 123/A)/The Crime of Stalking (Article 123/A of the Turkish Criminal Code)” Ankara Üniveristesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi 71(3): 1397-1430. google scholar
Özbek, V. Ö., K. Doğan and P. Bacaksız. 2021. Türk Ceza Hukuku Özel Hükümler/Turkish Criminal Law Special Provisions. Ankara: Seçkin. google scholar
Pakır, Y. 2018. Cinsel Saldırı Suçu/Crime of Sexual Assault. Ankara: Adalet. Reece, H. 2006. “The End of Domestic Violence” The Modern Law Review 69(5): 770-791. google scholar
Prime Ministry Family Studies Institute of Türkiye. 1995. Aile İçi Şiddetin Sebep ve Sonuçları/Reasons and Consequences of Domestic Violence. google scholar
Romkens, R. and R. Letschert. 2007. Feasibility Study for a Convention against Domestic Violence. Strasbourg: The Directorate General of Human Rights and Legal Affairs. google scholar
Sancar, T. 2013. Türk Ceza Hukukunda Kadın/Woman in the Turkish Criminal Law. Ankara: Seçkin. google scholar
Şener, U. 2012. 6284 Sayılı Ailenin Korunması ve Kadına Yönelik Şiddetin Önlenmesine Dair Kanun Ne Getiriyor?/What’s New on the Law No. 6284? TEPAV/The Economic Policy Research Foundation of Turkey Evaluation Note. google scholar
Sözüer, A., A. B. Baytaz and T. Kelep Pekmez. 2012. “Türk Ceza Hukukunda Kadın ve Türkiye’de Kadına Yönelik Şiddetin 6284 sayılı Kanun Bağlamında Değerlendirilmesi/Women in the Turkish Criminal Law and the Evaluation of Violence Against Women in Turkey in the Context of Law No. 6284” 2. Uluslararası Suç ve Ceza Film Festivali “Kadına Yönelik Şiddet ve Ayrımcılık” Akademik Programı/The 2nd International Crime and Punishment Film Festival “Violence against Women and Discrimination” Academic Programme (255-287). İstanbul, Turkey. google scholar
Stewart, J. 2005. Specialist Domestic/Family Violence Courts within the Australian Context. Sydney: Australian Domestic and Family Violence Clearinghouse, University of New South Wales. google scholar
Taner, F. G. 2017. Türk Ceza Hukukunda Cinsel Özgürlüğe Karşı Suçlar/Crimes against Sexual Freedom in the Turkish Criminal Law. Ankara: Seçkin. google scholar
Tezcan, D., M. R. Erdem and M. Önok. 2021. Teorik ve Pratik Ceza Özel Hukuku/Theoretical and Practical Criminal Law. Ankara: Seçkin. google scholar
Turkish Criminal Code. Law No. 5237. Official Gazette Publication Date: 12/10/2004. google scholar
Turkish Criminal Procedure Code. Law No. 5271. Official Gazette Publication Date: 17/12/2004. google scholar
United Nations (UN). 1992. The UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) General Recommendation No. 19 on Violence against Women (11th Session). CEDAW/C/1992/L.1/Add.15. google scholar
United Nations (UN). 1993. Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (DEVAW). General Assembly Resolution 48/104. google scholar
UN Women. 2011. Progress of the World’s Women: In Pursuit of Justice. New York: UN Women. google scholar
Uygur, G. and T. Sancar. 2005. “Law, Women’s Subordination and Changing Face of the Turkish Legal System in the Example of Article 434 of the Turkish Criminal Code” Eastern European Community Law Journal 1(2): 31-36. google scholar
Yokuş Sevük, H. 2022. Türk Ceza Hukuku Özel Hükümler/Turkish Criminal Law Special Provisions. Ankara: Adalet. google scholar