Jeffrey HAYNES, Çevirmen: Ömer Faruk CENGİZ

Avrupa ve ABD'de Sağcı Popülizm ve Din

Bu makale 11 Eylül sonrası Batı Avrupa, Orta Avrupa ve ABD’de sağcı popülizmin yükselişi ve siyasi tesir gücünü karşılaştırmalı olarak incelemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Odak noktası, bu tür siyasetçilerin bir inanç olarak İslam’ı ve bir halk (grup) olarak Müslümanları karalama/itibarsızlaştırma çabalarıdır. Makale şu araştırma sorusunu tetkik etmektedir: Avrupa ve ABD’deki sağcı popülistler, Müslümanlar ve İslam’ı karalamak için, nasıl ve neden “Hristiyancılık” (Christianism) ya da “Hristiyan medeniyetçiliği” (Christian civilizationism) olarak da bilinen “Hristiyanlığın” ideolojik bir şeklini/çeşidini kullanmaktadır? Siyasi amaç aşikârdır: kamusal algıyı etkilemek ve Müslümanları komşu olarak kabul etmenin, onların dini ve kültürel niteliklerinden dolayı imkânsız olduğunu savunmak suretiyle ABD ve Avrupa’da Müslümanların [bulunmasının] makbul olup olmadığını sorgulamak ve bu sayede oyları kazanmak. İddia odur ki, Müslümanlar, Avrupaî ya da Amerikanvari norm, değer ve davranışları benimsemeye muktedir olmadığından dışlanmalı veya yerli (nativist) topluluklar yararına kapsamlı kontrole tabi tutulmalıdır. ABD ve Avrupa’daki sağcı popülistler bu stratejiyi izlemektedir çünkü bu stratejiyi, müthiş bir belirsizlik, istikrarsızlık ve güvensizlik dönemine denk gelen kamuoyuyla uyumlu görmektedirler.

Anahtar Kelimeler:

Sağcı Popülizm, Avrupa, ABD, Hristiyancılık, Hristiyan Medeniyetçiliği, Müslümanlar, İslam

Right-Wing Populism and Religion in Europe and the USA

PDF

___

Adida, Claire vd. “Don’t Fear Muslim Immigrants. They Aren’t the Real Problem”. Foreign Affairs. Erişim 13 Mayıs 2019. http://marieannevalfort.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/ForeignAffairs2016_VALFORT.pdf
Belew, Kathleen. Bring the War Home: The White Power Movement and Paramilitary America. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2018.
Bergmann, Eirikur. Neo-Nationalism. The Rise of Nativist Populism. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020.
Beydoun, Khaled A. American Islamophobia: Understanding the Roots and Rise of Fear. Oakland: University of California Press, 2018.
Brubaker, Rogers. “A New ‘Christianist’ Secularism in Europe”. The Immanent Frame. Erişim 01 Şubat 2019. https://tif.ssrc.org/2016/10/11/a-new-christianist-secularism-in-europe/
Brubaker, Rogers. “Between Nationalism and Civilizationism: the European Populist Moment in Comparative Perspective”. Ethnic and Racial Studies 40/8 (2017), 1191-1226. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2017.1294700
Brubaker, Rogers. “Report of Rogers Brubaker’s Contributions to Discussions About ‘The Nationalist Populist Moment in Europe’”. Religion, Politics and Populism in Europe. the IEE Pôle Jean Monnet, The CEVIPOL and Arc En Valeur, 2017. Erişim 5 Ekim 2018. http://cevipol.ulb.ac.be/sites/default/files/conference-rogers-brubaker-c.r.etudiants.13-3-17. pdf
Brubaker, Rogers. “Why Populism?” Theory and Society 46/5 (2017), 357-385. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11186-017-9301-7
Císar, Ondrej - Štetka, Václav. “Czech Republic: The Rise of Populism from the Frin-ges to the Mainstream”. Populist Political Communication in Europe. ed. Toril Aal-berg vd. 285-298. New York: Routledge, 2017.
Crandall, Christian vd. “Changing Norms Following the 2016 U.S. Presidential Elec-tion: The Trump Effect on Prejudice”. Social Psychological and Personality Science 9/2 (2018), 186-192. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617750735
Davies, William. “Why We Stopped Trusting Elites”. The Guardian. Erişim 14 Şubat 2019. https//www.theguardian.com/news/2018/nov/29/why-we-stopped-tursting-elies-the-new-populism
Dearden, Lizzie. “Emmanuel Macron Claims Africa Held Back By ‘Civilisational’ Problems and Women Having ‘Seven Or Eight Children’”. The Independent. Erişim 13 Şubat 2019. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/emmanuel-macron-africa-development-civilisation problems-women-seven-eight-children-colonialism-a7835586.html
DeHanas, Daniel Nilsson - Shterin, Marat. “Religion and the Rise of Populism”. Reli-gion, State and Society 46/3 (2018), 177-185. https://doi.org/10.1080/09637494.2018.1502911
Delingpole, James. “Czech Politician: West Will Have to ‘Crush’ Islam”. Breitbart. Erişim 18 Şubat 2019. https://www.breitbart.com/europe/2016/05/21/czech-politician-islam-is-incompatible-with-western civilization/
DiMaggio, Anthony R. Political Power in America. Class Conflict and the Subversion of Democracy. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2019.
Eiermann, Martin vd. European Populism: Trends, Threats and Future Prospects. London: Tony Blair Institute for Global Change, 2017.
Ekström, Mats vd. “Right-Wing Populism and the Dynamics of Style: A Discourse-Analytic Perspective on Mediated Political Performances”. Palgrave Communica-tions 4/1 (2018), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-018-0132-6
Farny, Elisabeth. “Implications of the Securitisation of Migration”. E-International Relations. Erişim 29 Ağustos 2016. http://www.e-ir.info/2016/01/29/implications-of-the-securitisation-of-migration/ Friedman, Saul S. No Haven for the Oppressed: United States Policy Toward Jewish Refu-gees, 1938-1945. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1973.
Friedman, Uri. “What Is a Nativist? And Is Donald Trump One?” The Atlantic. Erişim 14 Şubat 2019. https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/04/what-is-nativist-trump/521355/
García, Mario. “Nativist, Anti-Immigrant Sentiment in the US Has A Long History”. National Catholic Reporter. Erişim 14 Şubat 2019. https://www.ncronline.org/news/opinion/ncr-today/nativist-anti-immigrant-sentiment-us-has-long-history
George, Cherian. Hate Spin: The Manufacture of Religious Offense and Its Threat to De-mocracy. Cambridge, London: The MIT Press, 2016.
Greven, Thomas. The Rise of Right-Wing Populism in Europe and the United States. Was-hington, DC: Friedrich Ebert Foundation, 2016.
Guerrero, Jean. Hatemonger: Stephen Miller, Donald Trump, and the White Nationalist Agenda. New York: William Morrow, 2020.
Haynes, Jeffrey. “Donald Trump, ‘Judeo-Christian Values,’ and the ‘Clash of Civiliza-tions’”. The Review of Faith & International Affairs 15/3 (2017), 66-75. https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2017.1354463
Haynes, Jeffrey. “Expert Comment: National Sovereignty, Globalisation and Securi-tisation of International Migration”. Dialogue of Civilizations Research Institu-te, Berlin, 2016. Erişim Tarihi 7 Haziran 2020. https://doc-research.org/en/report2/national-sovereignty-globalisation-securitisation-international-migration/
Haynes, Jeffrey. “From Huntington to Trump: Twenty-Five Years of the ‘Clash of Civilizations’”. The Review of Faith & International Affairs 17/1 (2019), 11-23. https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2019.1570755
Haynes, Jeffrey. “Introduction: The ‘Clash of Civilizations’ and Relations between the West and the Muslim World”. The Review of Faith & International Affairs 17/1 (2019), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2019.1570756
Haynes, Jeffrey. “Trump and the Politics of International Religious Freedom”. Reli-gions 11/8 (2020), 385. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel11080385
Haynes, Jeffrey. From Huntington to Trump: Thirty Years of the Clash of Civilizations. New York: Lexington Books, 2019.
Herbert, David. “Religion and Society”. Routledge Handbook of Religion and Political Parties. ed. Jeffrey Haynes. 31-43. London: Routledge, 2020.
Huntington, Samuel P. Who Are We?: The Challenges to America’s National Identity. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004.
Huntington, Samuel. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. Nor-manton: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996.
Huysmans, Jef. “The European Union and the Securitization of Migration”. Journal of Common Market Studies 38/5 (2000), 751-777. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5965.00263
Jethani, Skye. “Christianity Leads to Atheism”. Erişim 13 Şubat 2019. https://skyejethani.com/trump-and-the heresy-of-christianism/
Jones, Tobias. “The Fascist Movement That Has Brought Mussolini Back to The Mainstream”. The Guardian. Erişim 14 Şubat 2019. https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/feb/22/casapound-italy-mussolini fascism-mainstream
Joppke, Christian. “Culturalizing Religion in Western Europe: Patterns and Puzz-les”. Social Compass 65/2 (2018), 234-246. https://doi.org/10.1177/0037768618767962
Kalmar, Ivan. “Islamophobia in the East of the European Union: An Introduction”. Patterns of Prejudice 52/5 (2018), 389-405. https://doi.org/10.1080/0031322X.2018.1512467
Kamali, Mohammad Kashim. The Middle Path of Moderation in Islam: The Qur’anic Principle of Wasatiyyah. New York: Oxford University Press, 2015.
Kaya, Ayhan - Tecmen, Ayşe. “Europe versus Islam?: Right-Wing Populist Discourse and the Construction of a Civilizational Identity”. The Review of Faith & Internati-onal Affairs 17/1 (2019), 49-64. https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2019.1570759
Kratochvíl, Petr. “Religion as a Weapon: Invoking Religion in Secularized Socie-ties”. The Review of Faith & International Affairs 17/1 (2019), 78-88. https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2019.1570760
Lloyd, John. “Commentary: Now, a Different Clash of Civilizations”. Commentary. Reuters. Erişim 14 Şubat 2019. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-lloyd-civilizations-commentary/commentary-now-a different-clash-of-civilizations-idUSKBN1E923J
Majtényi, Balázs vd. “Constitutional Othering, Ambiguity and Subjective Risks of Mobilization in Hungary: Examples from the Migration Crisis”. Democratization 26/2 (2019), 173-189. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2018.1493051
Malice, Michael. “Alt-Right Bible ‘Camp of The Saints’ Proves Everyone’s StillInsa-ne’”. The Observer. Erişim 14 Şubat 2019. https://observer.com/2018/05/the-insanity-of-alt-right-bannon-aroved-the-camp-of-the saints/
Mandaville, Peter. “Designating Muslims: Islam in the Western Policy Imagina-tion”. The Review of Faith & International Affairs 15/3 (2017), 54-65. https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2017.1354466
Mandhai, Shafik. “How Big an Issue Is Islamophobia in Poland?” Al Jazeera. Erişim 05 Ekim 2018. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/11/big-issue-islamophobia-poland-171113064903344.html Marchetti, Raffaele. Global Strategic Engagement. Lanham: Lexington Books, 2016.
Mason, Rowena. “Nigel Farage: British Muslim ‘Fifth Column’ Fuels Fear of Immig-ration”. Erişim 14 Şubat 2019. https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2015/mar/12/nigel-farage-british-muslim fifth-column-fuels-immigration-fear-ukip
Michael Rossi. “Slovakia’s ‘Progressive Turn’ is a Rejection of Corruption—Not a Stand against Populism”. Evidence-Based Analysis and Commentary on European Poli-tics, London School of Economics. Erişim 02 Temmuz 2019. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/europpblog/2019/06/14/slovakias-progressive-turn-is-a-rejection-of corruption-not-a-stand-against-populism/
Milton, Daniel. “Does the Cure Address the Problem? Examining the Trump Admi-nistration’s Executive Order on Immigration from Muslim-majority Countries Using Publicly Available Data on Terrorism”. Perspectives on Terrorism. Erişim 13 Mayıs 2019. http://www.terrorismanalysts.com/pt/index.php/pot/article/view/625
Mudde, Cas. Populist Radical Right Parties in Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-sity Press, 2007. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511492037
Ozzano, Luca. “Religion, Cleavages, and Right-Wing Populist Parties: The Italian Case”. The Review of Faith & International Affairs 17/1 (2019), 65-77. https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2019.1570761
Polakow-Suransky, Sasha. Go Back to Where You Came From: The Backlash Against Im-migration and the Fate of Western Democracy. New York: Nation Books, 2017.
PRC, Pew Research Center. “Europe’s Growing Muslim Population”. Erişim 19 Aralık 2022. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2017/11/29/europes-growing-muslim-population/
Riess, Jana. “Donald Trump is not a Christian, but he knows what the religious right needs to hear, says historian”. Religion News Service (19 Nisan 2018). https://religionnews.com/2018/04/19/donald-trump-is-not-a-christian-but-he-knows-what-the-religious-right-needs-to-hear-says-historian/
Ryan, Ben. “Christianism: A Crude Political Ideology and the Triumph of Empty Symbolism.” Religion and Global Society. Erişim 13 Şubat 2019. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/religionglobalsociety/2018/11/christianism-a-crude po-litical-ideology-and-the-triumph-of-empty-symbolism/
Sharify-Funk, Meena. “Pervasive Anxiety about Islam: A Critical Reading of Con-temporary ‘Clash’ Literature”. Religions 4/4 (2013), 443-468. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel4040443
Siddiqui, Sabrina. “Steve King, White Supremacy and the Problem with Donald Trump”. The Guardian. Erişim 13 Şubat 2019. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/jan/20/steve-king-is-representative of-the-problem-with-donald-trump
SPLC, Southern Poverty Law Center. “Southern Poverty Law Center”. Erişim 19 Ara-lık 2022. https://www.splcenter.org/
Stewart, Katherine. The Power Worshippers: Inside the Dangerous Rise of Religious Nati-onalism. London: Bloomsbury, 2020.
Subtirelu, Nicholas Close. “Donald Trump Supporters and the Denial of Racism: An Analysis of Online Discourse in a pro-Trump Community”. Journal of Language Aggression and Conflict 5/2 (2017), 323-346. https://doi.org/10.1075/jlac.5.2.08sub
Sullivan, Author Andrew. “The Decline And Fall Of Christianism”. The Dish. Erişim 13 Şubat 2019. http://dish.andrewsullivan.com/2013/10/23/the-decline-and-fall-of-christianism/
Than, Krisztina. “Hungary Seeks Broader Anti-Migrant Alliance after Austria, Italy Elections”. Reuters. Erişim 18 Şubat 2019. https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-europe-migrants-hungary-minister/ hungary-seeks-broader-anti-migrant-alliance-after-austria-italy-elections-idUKKCN1GO25A
Tondo, Lorenzo. “Italy’s Matteo Salvini Joins Bannon’s European Populist Group”. The Guardian. Erişim 05 Eylül 2018. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/08/italy-matteo-salvini-joins-steve-bannon european-popullist-group-movement
Wæver, Ole. “Fear and Faith: Religion as an International Security Issue”. Ders Not-ları, Mershon Center, Ohio State University, 17 Mayıs 2006. https://kb.osu.edu/bitstream/handle/1811/30197/Ole%20W%c3%a6ver%205-17-06.pdf?sequence=4
Walker, Shaun - Boffey, Daniel. “Hungary Election: OSCE Monitors Deliver Damning Verdict”. The Guardian. Erişim 09 Nisan 2018. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/09/hungary-election-osce-monitors-deliver-damning-verdict
Weyland, Kurt. “Latin America’s Authoritarian Drift: The Threat from the Populist Left”. Journal of Democracy 24/3 (2013), 18-32. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2013.0045
Whitehead, Andrew vd. “Make America Christian Again: Christian Nationalism and Voting for Donald Trump in the 2016 Presidential Election”. Sociology of Religion 79/2 (2018), 147-171. https://doi.org/10.1093/socrel/srx070
Young, Julia G. “Making America 1920 Again? Nativism and US Immigration, Past and Present”. Journal on Migration and Human Security 5/1 (2017), 217-235. https://doi.org/10.1177/233150241700500111
Zemni, Sami. “Islam, European Identity and the Limits of Multiculturalism”. Religi-ous Freedom and the Neutrality of the State: The Position of the European Union. ed. Wasif Shadid - Pieter S. van . 146-161. Leuven: Koningsveld, 2002.
“About the Visegrád Group”. Erişim 18 Şubat 2019. http://www.visegradgroup.eu/
“History of the Visegrád Group”. Erişim 18 Şubat 2019. http://www.visegradgroup.eu/history/history-of-the visegrad