MEHMET SERKAN AKKİRAZ, FUNDA AKGÜN, SEFER ÖRÇEN, ANGELA ANNELIESE BRUCH, VOLKER MOSBRUGGER

Denizli Yöresindeki Bartoniyen–Priyaboniyen (Orta–Geç Eosen) Mikrofosilleri içeren Başçeşme Formasyonu’nun Stratigrafik ve Ortamsal Önemi, Batı Anadolu

Bu çal›flma, Çardak–Tokça havzas›n›n (Bat› Anadolu) Baflçeflme formasyonunundan elde edilen Bartoniyen–Priyaboniyen (Orta–Geç Eosen) yafll›, fauna ve floran›n stratigrafik ve paleoortamsal önemini aç›klar. Çal›fl›lan istif, stratigrafik kesiklik olmaks›z›n, s›¤ deniz, k›y› ortam›nda çökelmifl Baflçeflme formasyonundan bir yüzlektir. Baflçeflme formasyonunun palinolojik toplulu¤unda 40 cins ve 58 tür tan›mlanm›flt›r. ‹yi korunmufl çeflitli palinomorf ve foraminifer topluluklar›, Baflçeflme formasyonun yafl›n› Orta–Geç Eosen olarak vermektedir. Bat› Anadolu’da, mangrove elementleri olan Nypa ve Pelliciera ilk kez bu çal›flmada kaydedilmifltir. Mangrov gerisindeki ortamda Mauritia ve Acrostichum polenleri mevcuttur. Alçak alan-Irmak kenar› elemanlar›, Myricaceae, Betulaceae, Engelhardia, Fagaceae, Myrtaceae, Anacardiaceae ve Taxodiaceae, da¤ elemanlar› ise Pinus, Abies, Picea, Cathaya, Quercus ve Castanea ile karakterize edilir. Tatl›su elamanlar› Sparganiaceae, Pediastrum sp. ve Aglaoreidia cyclops ile temsil edilir. Elde edilen palinolojik veriler, Baflçeflme formasyonun alt kesimlerinden al›nan örneklerin mangrov gerisi ortam› belirtti¤ini göstermektedir. ‹stifin üst kesimlerinde kötü korunmufl dinoflagellatler›n varl›¤› tortullaflman›n mangrove ortam›nda gerçekleflti¤ini göstermektedir. Mercan, bivalvia ve gastropodlu iyi korunmufl foraminifer verileri, tortulaflman›n s›¤ denizel ortamda son buldu¤unu göstermektedir. Bu makalede, ‘coexistence approach’ yöntemine dayal›, Baflçeflme formasyonunun karasal iklimsel koflullar› da tart›fl›lm›flt›r.

Anahtar Kelimeler:

Orta–Geç Eosen, mangrov, Bat› Anadolu, bentik foraminifer, palinomorf, paleoortam, paleoiklim

Stratigraphic and Palaeoenvironmental Significance of Bartonian–Priabonian (Middle–Late Eocene) Microfossils from the Baflçeflme Formation, Denizli Province, Western Anatolia

This study explains the stratigraphical and palaeoenvironmental significance of Bartonian-Priabonian (Middle-Late Eocene) fossils, the fauna and flora obtained from the Başçeşme formation of the Çardak-Tokça basin (western Anatolia). The studied sequence is an outcrop from the Başçeşme formation, deposited in a shallow-marine to coastal environment without stratigraphic breaks. Forty genera and 58 species have been recognized in the palynological assemblage of the Başçeşme formation. A well-preserved diverse palynomorph and foraminiferal assemblages yield the Middle-Late Eocene age for the Başçeşme formation. In western Anatolia, mangrove elements Nypa and Pelliciera have been first recorded in this study. The pollen of Mauritia and Acrostichum occur in the back-mangrove environment. Lowland-Riparian and montane elements are characterized by dominance of Myricaceae, Betulaceae, Engelhardia, Fagaceae, Myrtaceae, Anacardiaceae and Taxodiaceae, Pinus, Abies, Picea, Cathaya, Quercus and Castanea, respectively. Fresh-water elements are represented by Sparganiaceae, Pediastrum sp. and Aglaoreidia cyclops. The palynological data for samples taken from the lower part of the section of the Başçeşme formation indicate a back-mangrove environment. The presence of poorly preserved dinoflagellate cysts suggest that sedimentation occurred in a mangrove environment in the upper part of the section. The well-preserved foraminiferal data, along with corals, bivalves and gastropods, indicate that sedimentation ceased in the shallow-marine environment. In this paper, terrestrial climatic conditions of the Başçeşme formation are also discussed on the basis of the coexistence approach.

Keywords:

Middle-Late Eocene, mangrove, western Anatolia, benthic foraminifer, palynomorph, palaeoenvironment, palaeoclimate,

PDF

___

AKGÜN, F. 2002. Stratigraphic and paleoenvironmental significance of
Eocene palynomorphs of the Çorum-Amasya area in the central Anatolia, Turkey. Acta Palaeontologica Sinica 41, 576–591.
AKGÜN, F., AKAY, E. & ERDO⁄AN, B. 2002. Terrestrial to shallow marine deposition in central Anatolia: a palynological approach. Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences 11, 1–27.
AKKİRAZ, M.S. & AKGÜN, F. 2005. Palynology and age of the Early Oligocene units in Çardak-Tokça basin, southwest Anatolia: paleoecological implications. Geobios 38, 283–299.
AKYOL, E. 1978. Stratigrafik palinoloji, kömür iflletmeciliği ve bir örnek [Stratigraphic palynology, coal mining and a case study]. Jeoloji Mühendisliği Dergisi 6, 31–38 [in Turkish with English abstract].
AKYOL, E. 1980. Etude palynologique de l'Eocene de Bayat (Çorum- Turquie) et essai de correlation entre Karakaya et Emirflah. Mineral Research and Exploration Institute of Turkey (MTA) Bulletin 91, 39–53.
ALEKSANDROVA, A.N., PROZOROV, Y.I. & YASAMANOV, N.A. 1987. Climatic and floristic zonation of the Mediterranean region during the Early Cenozoic time. International Geology Review 29, 503–514.
BLASCO, F. 1977. Outlines of ecology, botany and forestry of the mangals of the Indian subcontinent. In: CHAPMAN, V.J. (ed), Ecosystems of the World. Wet Coastal Ecosystems 1, 241–260.
BOLOTNIKOVA, M.D. 1979. Spore-Pollen Complexes of Tertiary Deposits of the Western Coast of the Sea of Japan. “Science” Publishing House, Moscow.
BOZKURT, E. & PARK, R.G. 1994. Southern Menderes Massif: an incipient metamorphic core complex in western Anatolia, Turkey. Journal of the Geological Society, London 151, 213–216.
BOZKURT, E. & PARK, R.G. 1999. The structure of the Palaeozoic schists in the southern Menderes Massif, western Turkey: a new approach to the origin of the main Menderes metamorphism and its relation to the Lycian Nappes. Geodinamica Acta 12, 25–42.
BUCHARDT, B. 1978. Oxygen isotope paleotemperatures from the Tertiary period in the North Sea area. Nature 275, 121–123.
CAVAGNETTO, C. & ANADÓN, P. 1995. Uno mangrove complexe dans le Bartonien du basin de le l’Ebre (Ne de l’Espagne). Palaeontographica Abteilung B Ionnides 236, 147–165.
CAVAGNETTO, C. & ANADÓN, P. 1996. Preliminary palynological data on floristic and climatic changes during the Middle Eocene- Early Oligocene of the eastern Ebro Basin, northeast Spain. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 92, 281–305.
CHAPMAN, V.J. 1976. Mangrove Vegetation. J. Cramer, FL-9490 Vaduz, 447 p.
CHATEAUNEUF, J.J. 1980. Palynostratigraphie et Paléoclimatologie de l’ Eocène Supérieur et de l’ Oligocène du Bassin de Paris. Mémorie du Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières 116, 1–360.
COLLINS, J., BERKELHAMER, R.C. & MESLER, M. 1977. Notes on the natural history of the mangrove Pelliciera rhizophorae Tr. & Pl., (Theaceae). Bresnia 10/11, 17–29.
COLLINS, A.S. & ROBERTSON, A.H.F. 1997. The Lycian Mélange, southwest Turkey: an emplaced accretionary complex. Geology 25, 255–258.
COLLINS, A.S. & ROBERTSON, A.H.F. 1998. Processes of Late Cretaceous to Late Miocene episodic thrust sheet translation in the Lycian Taurides, SW Turkey. Journal of the Geological Society, London 155, 759–772.
COLLINS, A.S. & ROBERTSON, A.H.F. 1999. Evolution of the Lycian allochthon, western Turkey, as a north-facing Late Palaeozoic to Mesozoic rift and passive continental margin. Geological Journal 34, 107–138.
DILCHER, D.L. 1973. A palaeoclimatic interpretation of the Eocene floras southeastern North America. In: GRAHAM, A. (ed), Vegetation and Vegetational History of Northern Latin America. Elsevier Publishing Company, 39–59.
EDİGER, V.fi., BATı, Z. & ALİflAN, C. 1990. Paleopalynology and paleoecology of Calamus like disulcate pollen grains. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 62, 97–105.
ELBEıALY, S.Y. 1998. Stratigraphic and palaenvironmental significance of Eocene palynomorphs from the Rusayl Shale Formation, Al Khawd, northern Oman. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 102, 249–258.
ELSıK, W.C. 1974. Characteristic Eocene palynomorphs of the Gulf Coast, U.S.A. Palaeontographica Abteilung B Ionnides 149, 90–111.
FECHNER, G.G. 1988. Selected palynomorphs from the Lower to Middle Eocene of the South Atlas Border Zone (Morocco) and their environmental significance. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 65, 73–79.
FOWLER, K. 1971. A new species of Aglaoreidia from the Eocene of southern England. Pollen et Spores 13, 135–147.
FREDERıKSEN, N.O. 1973. New mid–Tertiary spores and pollen grains from Mississipi and Alabama. Tulane Studies in Geology and Paleontology 10, 65–86.
FREDERıKSEN, N.O. 1980a. Sporomorphs from the Jackson Group (Upper Eocene) and adjacent strata of Mississipi and western Alabama. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1084, 1–75.
FREDERKSEN, N.O. 1980b. Mid–Tertiary climate of southeastern United States: the sporomorph evidence. Journal of Paleontology 54, 728–739.
FREDERKSEN, N.O. 1985. Review of early Tertiary sporomorph palaeoecology. American Association of Stratigraphical Palynologists Contribution Series 19, 1–92.
FREDERıKSEN, N.O. 1988. Sporomorph biostratigraphy, floral changes, and paleoclimatology, Eocene and earliest Oligocene of the eastern Gulf Coast. United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 1448, 1–68.
FREDERıKSEN, N.O. 1994. Middle and Late Paleocene angiosperm pollen from Pakistan. Palynology 18, 91–137.
FREDERıKSEN, N.O., EDWARDS, L.E., AGER, T.A. & SHEEEHAN, T.P. 2002. Palynology of Eocene strata in the Sagavanirktok and Canning formations on the north slope of Alaska. Palynology 26, 59–93.
FUCH, J.R. 1970. Ecological and palynological notes on Pelliciera rhizophorae. Acta Botanica Neerlandica 19, 884–894.
GERMERAAD, J.H., HOPPING, C.A. & MÜLLER, J. 1968. Palynology of Tertiary sediments from tropical areas. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 6, 189–348.
GONZÁLEZ-GUZMÁN, A.E. 1967. A Palynological Study on the Upper Los Cuervos and Mirador Formations (Lower and Middle Eocene, Tibu Area, Colombia). E.J. Brill, Leiden.
GÖKTAfl, F., ÇAKMAKO⁄LU, A., TARı, E., SÜTÇÜ, Y. F. & SARıKAYA, H. 1989. Çivril–Çardak Arasının Jeolojisi [Geology of Çivril-Çardak Region]. Mineral Research and Exploration Institute of Turkey (MTA) Report 8701, 107 p [in Turkish, unpublished].
GRAHAM, A. 1977. New records of Pelliceria (Theaceae/Pelliceriaceae) in the Tertiary of the Caribbean. Biotropica 9, 48–52.
GRAHAM, A. 1995. Diversification of Gula/Caribbean mangrove communities through Cenozoic time. Biotropica 27, 20–27.
GRAY, J. 1960. Temperate pollen genera in the Eocene (Claiborne) flora, Alabama. Science 132, 808–810.
GREENWOOD, D.R. & WıNG, S.L. 1995. Eocene continental climates and latitudinal temperature gradients. Geology 23, 1044–1048.
GRUAS–CAVAGNETTO, C. 1977. Étude palynologique de l’Eocéne du Bassin Anglo-Parisien. Thèse de Doctorate d’État és Sciences Naturelles, Universite de Pierre Marie Curie VI, 287 p.
GRUAS-CAVAGNETTO, C. 1978. Étude palynologique de l’Eocéne du Bassin Anglo-Parisien. Mémoire de la Société Géologique de France 131,1–64.
HASELDONCKX, P. 1972. The presence of Nypa palm in Europe: a solved problem. Geologie en Mijnbouw 51, 645–650.
HOCHULI, P.A. 1978. Palynologische Untersuchungen im Oligozän und Untermiozän der Zentralen und Weslichen Paratethys. Beiträge Paläontologie Österreich 4, 1–132.
HOCHULI, P.A. 1984. Correlation of the Middle and Late Tertiary sporomorph assemblage. Paléobiologie continentale 301–314. 14,
JIMÉNEZ, J.A. 1984. A hypothesis to explain the reduced distribution of the mangrove Pelliciera rhizophorae Tr. & Pl. Biotropica 16, 304–308.
KEDVES, M. 1969. Etudes palynologiques des couches du Tertiaire inferieur de la region Parisienne. IV. Pollens des Normapolles. Pollen et Spores 11, 385–396.
KEDVES, M. 1970. Etudes palynologiques des couches du Tertraire inferieur de la region Parisienne. Pollen et Spores 12, 83–97.
KEDVES, M. 1982. Palynology of the Thanetian layers of Ménat. Palaeontographica Abteilung B Ionnides 182, 87–150.
KEDVES, M. 1986. Paleogene fossil sporomorphs of the Bakony Mountains IV. Studia Biologica Hungarica 21, 1–120.
KOÇYİ⁄İT, A. 2005. The Denizli graben–horst system and the eastern limit of western Anatolian continental extension: basin fill, structure, deformational mode, throw amount and episodic evolutionary history, SW Turkey. Geodinamica Acta 18, 167–208.
KONAK, N., AKDENİZ, N. & ÖZTÜRK, E.M. 1987. Geology of the South of Menderes Massif. Guide Book for the Field Excursion Along Western Anatolia, IGCP Project No. 5, 42–53.
KORALAY, O.E., DORA, O.Ö., CHEN, F., SATıR, M. & CANDAN, O. 2004. Geochemistry and geochronology of orthogneisses in the Derbent (Alaflehir) area, eastern part of the Ödemifl–Kiraz submassif, Menderes Massif: Pan-African magmatic activity. Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences 13, 37–61.
KRUTZSCH, W. 1957. Sporen–und Pollengruppen aus der Oberkreide und dem Tertiär Mitteleuropas und ihre stratigraphische Verteilung. Zeitschrift für Angewandte Geologie 3, 509–548.
KRUTZSCH, W. 1970. Atlas der mittel–und jungtertiären dispersen Sporen–und Pollen- sowie der Mikroplanktonformen des nördlichen Mitteleuropas. Lieferung VII, VEB Gustav Fischer Verlag, Jena, 175 p.
KRUTZSCH, W. & VANHOORNE, R. 1977. Die pollen flora von Epinois und Loksbergenin Belgien. Palaeontographica Abteilung B Ionnides 163, 1–110.
LENZ, O.K. & RIEGEL, W. 2001. Isopollen maps as a tool for the reconstruction of a coastal swamp from the Middle Eocene at Helmstedt (northern Germany). Facies 45, 177–194.
MOSBRUGGER, V. & UTESCHER, T. 1997. The coexistence approach – a method for quantitative reconstructions of Tertiary terrestrial palaeoclimate data using the plant fossils. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 134, 61–86.
MÜLLER, J. 1980. Fossil pollen records of extant angiosperms. Botanical Review 47, 1–142.
MÜLLER, J. 1981. Palynological evidence for Paleogene climatic changes. Mémoires du Museum National d’Historie Naturelle, Nouvelle Séries, B Botanique XXVII, 211–218.
NAKOMAN, E. 1966. Analyse sporopollinique des lignites eocenes de Sorgun (Yozgat–Turquie). Mineral Research and Exploration Institute of Turkey (MTA) Bulletin 67, 68–88.
NıCKEL, B. 1996. Palynofazies und Palynostratigraphie der Pechelbronn Schihten im nördlichen oberrhein talgraben. Palaeontographica Abteilung B Ionnides 240, 1–151.
NıX, H.A. 1982. Environmental determinations of biogeography and evolution in Terra Australis. In: BARKER, W.S & GREENSLADE, P.J.M. (eds), Evolution of the Flora and Fauna of Arid Australia. Peacock Publication, Adelaide, 47–66.
OLLIVIER-PIERRE, M.F., MAUPIN, C., ESTÉOULE-CHOUX, J. & SITTLER, C. 1993. Transgression et paleoenvironnement à l’ Oligocène en Bretagne. Sédimentologie, micropaléontologie palynologie et palynofaciès du Rupélien du Bassin de Rennes. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 103, 223–250.
ÖZER, S., SÖZBİLİR, H., ÖZKAR, İ., TOKER, V. & SARı, B. 2001. Stratigraphy of Upper Cretaceous-Palaeogene sequences in the southern and eastern Menderes Massif (western Turkey). International Journal of Earth Sciences 89, 852–866.
ÖZKAYA, İ. 1990. Origin of Lycian Nappes, SW Turkey. Tectonophysics 177, 367–379.
ÖZKAYA, İ. 1991. Evolution of a Tertiary volcanogenic trough in SW Turkey – the Alakaya basin of the Lycian belt. Geologische Rundschau 80, 657–668.
PLAZıAT, J.C., CAVAGNETTO, C., KOENıGUER, J.C. & BALTZER, F. 2001. History and biogeography of the mangrove ecosystem, based on a critical reassessment of the paleontological record. Wetlands Ecology and Management 9, 161–179.
POıSSON, A. 1976. Essai d’interprétation d’une transversale Korkuteli–Denizli (Taurus ouest-anatolien-Turkuie). Bulletin of the Geological Society of France 2, 499–509.
POLE, M.S. & MACPHAıL, M.K. 1996. Eocene Nypa from Regatta Point, Tasmania. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 92, 55–67.
RıEGEL, W., BODE, T., HAMMER, J., HAMMER–SCHIEMANN, G., LENZ, O. & WILDE, V. 1999. The palaeoecology of the Lower and Middle Eocene at Helmstedt, northern Germany – a study in contrasts. Acta Palaeobotanica Supplement 2, 349–358.
ROCHE, E. 1988. Pollen and spores (compilation). In: VINKEN, R. (ed), The Northwest European Tertiary Basin. Geologisches Jahrbuch (Hannover), Reihe A 100, 288–320.
RULL, V. 1992. Paleoecología y análisis secuencial de una sección deltaica Terciaria en la Cuenca de Maracaibo. Boletín Sociedad Venezolana Geólogos 46, 16–26.
RULL, V. 1997a. Sequence analysis of western Venezuelan Cretaceous to Eocene sediments using palynology; chrono-paleoenvironmental and paleovegetational approaches. Palynology 21, 79–90.
RULL, V. 1997b. Oligo–Miocene palynology of the Rio Chama sequence (western Venezuela), with comments on fossil algae as paleoenvironmental indicators. Palynology 21, 213–229.
RULL, V. 1998a. Middle Eocene mangroves and vegetation changes in the Maracibo Basin. Palaios 13, 287–296.
RULL, V. 1998b. Biogeographical and evolutionary considerations of Mauritia Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 109–122. 100,
RULL, V. 1999. Paleofloristic and paleovegetational changes across the Paleocene–Eocene boundary in northern South America. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 107, 83–95.
RYAN, P.D., HARPER, D.A.T. & WHALLEY, J.S. 1995. PALSTAT, Statistics for palaeontologists. Chapman & Hall, London (now Kluwer Academic Publishers).
fiAHBAZ, A. & GÖRMÜfl, S. 1992. Çardak (Denizli) kuzeyindeki Eosen ve Oligosen yafllı konglomeraların stratigrafik ve sedimantolojik incelenmesi. [Stratigraphic and sedimentalogical investigation of Eocene and Oligocene conglomerates in the north of Çardak (Denizli)] 9th Petroleum Congress of Turkey 2, 62–74 [in Turkish with English abstract].
SARı, B. & ÖZER, S. 2002. Upper Cretaceous stratigraphy of the Bey Dağları carbonate platform, Korkuteli area (Western Turides, Turkey). Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences 11, 39–59.
SCHMıEDL, G., SCHERBACHER, M., BRUCH, A.A., JELEN, B., NEBELSıCK, J.H., HEMLEBEN, C., MOSBRUGGER, V. & RıFELJ, H. 2002. Palaeoenvironmental evolution of the Paratethys in the Slovenian Basin during the Late Paleogene. International Journal of Earth Sciences 91, 123–132.
fiENEL, M. 1991. Palaeocene-Eocene sediments interbedded with volcanics within the Lycian Nappes: Faralya formation. Mineral Research and Exploration Institute of Turkey Bulletin 113, 1–14.
SEYİTO⁄LU, G. & SCOTT, B. 1996. The cause of N-S extensional tectonics in western Turkey: tectonic escape vs back-arc spreading vs orogenic collapse. Journal of Geodynamics 22, 145–153.
SÖZBİLİR, H. 2002. Revised stratigraphy and facies analysis of Palaeocene–Eocene supra–allochthonous sediments (Denizli, SW Turkey) and their tectonic significance. Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences 11, 87–112.
SÖZBİLİR, H. 2005. Oligo–Miocene extension in the Lycian orogen: evidence from the Lycian molasse basin, SW Turkey. Geodinamica Acta 18, 255–282.
SÖZBİLİR, H., ÖZER, S., SARı, B. & AVflAR, N. 2001. Supra–allochton sedimentary succession in western Anatolia: new stratigraphic data and tectonic results. Fouth International Turkish Geology Symposium, Abstracts, 36.
SRıVASTAVA, S.K. & BıNDA, P.L. 1991. Depositional History of the Early Eocene Shumaysi Formation, Saudi Arabia. Palynology 15, 47–61.
STUCHLıK, L., ZıEMBı´NSKA-TWORZYDLO, M., KOHLMAN-ADAMSKA, A., GRABOWSKA, I., WAZY´ . 2001. Atlas of pollen and spores of Polish Neogene. W. Szafer Institute of Botany, Polish Academy Sciences 1, 1–69.
THANıKAMONı, G. 1987. Mangrove palynology. Institut français de Pondichéry, Travaux de la Section Scientifique et Technique XXIV, 1–100.
THANıKAMONı, G., CARATıNı, C., VENKATACHALA, B.S., RAMANUJHAM, C.G.K. & KAR, R.K. 1984. Selected Tertiary angiosperms pollen from India and their relationship with African Tertiary pollens. Institut français de Pondichéry, Travaux de la Section Scientifique et Technique XIX, 1–192.
THıELE-PFEıFFER, H. 1988. Die Mikroflora aus dem mittelozänen ölschiefers von Messel bei Darmstadt. Palaeontographica Abteilung B Ionnides 211, 1–86.
THOMSON, P.W. & PFLUG, H. 1953. Pollen und Sporen des mitteleurpäischen Tertiärs. Palaeontographica Abteilung B Ionnides 94, 1–138.
UPCHURCH, G.R. & WOLFE, J. A. 1987. Mid–Cretaceous to early Tertiary vegetation and climate: evidence from fossil leaves and woods. In: FRIIS, E.M., CHALONER, W.G. & CRANE, P.H. (eds), The Origins of Angiosperms and Their Biological Consequences. Cambridge University Press, 75–105.
VANDERHAMMEN, T. & WIJMSTRA, T.A. 1964. A palynological study on the Tertiary and Upper Cretaceous of British Guiana. Leidse Geologische Mededelingen 30, 183–241.
VINKEN, R. 1988. The Northwest European Tertiary Basin. (IGCP 124). Geologisches Jahrbuch (Hannover) Reihe A 100, 1–508.
WESTAWAY, R., GUıLLOU, H., YURTMEN, S., DEMIR, T., SCAıLLET, S. & ROWBOTHAM, G. 2005. Constraints on the timing and regional conditions at the start of the presence phase of crustal extension in western Turkey, from observations in and around the Denizli region. Geodinamica Acta 18, 209–238.
WESTGATE, J.W. & GEE, C.T. 1990. Palaeoecology of a Middle Eocene mangrove biota (vertebrates, plants and invertebrates) from southwest Texas. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 78, 163–177.
WOLFE, J.A. 1978. A paleobotanical interpretation of Tertiary climates in northern hemisphere. American Scientist 66, 694–703.
WOLFE, J.A. 1979. Temperature parameters of humid to mesic forests of eastern Asia and relation to forests of other regions of the Northern Hemisphere and Australasia. United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 1106, 37 p.
WOLFE, J.A. 1992. Climatic, floristic and vegetational changes near the Eocene/Oligocene boundary in North America. In: PROTHERO, D.R. & BERGGREN, W.A. (eds), Eocene–Oligocene Climatic and Biotic Evolution. Princeton University Press, 421–436.
YALÇıNKAYA, S., ENGİN, A., TANER, K., AFflAR, Ö.P., DALKıLıÇ, H. & ÖZGÖNÜL, E. 1986. Batı Torosların Jeolojisi [Geology of Western Taurides]. Mineral Research and Exploration Institute of Turkey (MTA) Report 7898, 132 p [in Turkish, unpublished].
YASAMANOV, N.A. 1982. The problem of global changes in temperature regime of the earth’s surface during Cenozoic time. Izvestiya AN SSSR, seriya geologicheskaya 10, 106–110.