Başak KALE

1410

The Limits of an International Burden-sharing Approach: The Syrian Refugee Protection Crisis and Its Consequences on Turkey’s Refugee Policy

This article analyses the consequences of the Syrian refugee protection crisis on the development of an effective international burden-sharing approach. It argues that despite the proven necessity of developing effective burden-sharing mechanisms at the EU and international levels, the Syrian refugee protection crisis has shown that limited progress has been achieved both at the international and the regional levels. This article brings these discussions under a systematic framework to show how the Syrian refugee crisis can provide an opportunity and also a challenge for the development of an effective and durable international burdensharing approach. The primary objective of this research is to review Turkey’s experience with the Syrian refugees. The lack of commitment for international burden-sharing puts refugee-receiving countries under immense financial, political and social pressures, which have direct consequences on the humanitarian assistance that refugees can receive. Taking one such refugee hosting country, Turkey, as an example, this research investigates responses given to refugee protection at an international level
Keywords:

Syrian Refugee Protection Crisis, Syrian War, Refugees, Burden-Sharing, Turkey and Refugees Refugee Policy,

PDF

___

  • This article does not utilize the common usage of the term the “Syrian refugee crisis”. Asylum seekers or refugees themselves did not cause the crisis in 2015. I argue that the crisis was a direct result of the inability or ineffectiveness of the states to provide international protection to persons in need of protection. This research therefore adopts the term “refugee protection crisis”.
  • In some literature, the concept “responsibility sharing” is used instead of “burden- sharing”. UNHCR is also adopting the usage of “responsibility sharing.” However, the 1951 Geneva Convention frames this concept as “burden-sharing” and this article utilizes the original form of this concept adopted from the 1951 Convention. 3 UN
  • Universal Declaration of Human Rights, UN General Assembly Resolution, 217(III)
  • at http://www.un-documents.net/a3r217a.htm (last visited 24 January 2017).
  • Ibid., Article 14.1. 5 UNHCR, 6 UNHCR, Preamble. 7 Ibid. 8 Ibid.
  • Paul A. Samuelson, “The Pure Theory of Public Expenditure”, Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 36, No. 4 (November 1954), p. 387.
  • John G. Head, “Public goods and Public Policy”, Public Finance, No. 3 (1962), p. 197- 221.
  • For more information see also Hal R. Varian, Microeconomic Analysis, New York, Norton Publishing Co., 1992; Andreu Mas-Colell, Michael D. Whinston, and Jerry R. Green, Microeconomic Theory, New York, Oxford University Press, 1995; or Hugh Gravelle and Ray Rees, Microeconomics, New York, Pears Education, 2004.
  • Mancur Olson and Richard Zeckhauser, “An Economic Theory of Alliances”, The Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 48, No. 3, (1996), p. 3. 13 Ibid., p. 1. 14 Ibid., p. 6.
  • David N. Hyman, Public Finance, Chicago, Dryden Press, 1983.
  • Mauro Mare, “Public Goods, Free Riding and NATO Defence Burden Sharing”, The International Spectator: Italian Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 23, No. 1 (1988), p. 7-15.
  • Eiko Thielemann and Torun Dewan, “The Myth of Free-riding: Refugee Protection and Implicit Burden-sharing”, West European Politics, Vol.29, No.2, (2006), p.351. 18 Ibid., p.352.
  • Astri Suhrke, “Burden-sharing during Refugee Emergencies: The Logic of Collective Versus National Action”, Journal of Refugee Studies, Vol.11, No.4 (1998), p. 397. 20 Ibid., p. 396. 21 Ibid., p. 398.
  • Marc A. Levy, Oran Y. Young, and Michael Zürn, “The Study of International Regimes”, European Journal of International Relations, Vol.1, No.3 (1995), p. 267-330.
  • Suhrke, Burden-sharing during Refugee Emergencies, p. 399.
  • UNCHR, Syrian Emergency, at http://www.unhcr.org/syria-emergency.html, (last visited 8 October 2017)
  • “Syrian refugee crisis FAQ: What you need to know”, World Vision, at https://www. worldvision.org/refugees-news-stories/syria-refugee-crisis-faq-war-affecting-children (last visited 22 January 2017).
  • “Humanitarian Response to Syria”, at https://www.humanitarianresponse.info/en/ node/117522 (last visited 7 February 2017).
  • Ahmet Davutoğlu, Stratejik Derinlik, İstanbul, Küre Yayınları, 2001.
  • Başak Kale, “Turkey’s Transforming Visa Policy: Integration or Divergence with the EU?”, Barcelona, CIDOB Publications, at http://www.eu4seas.eu/index.php?option=com_con tent&task=view&id=75&Itemid=23 (last visited 3 February 2017).
  • “Law on Foreigners and International Protection”, at http://www.goc.gov.tr/files/files/ eng_minikanun_5_son.pdf (last visited 7 February 2017).
  • Interview, UNHCR Ankara Office, 7 February 2017.
  • Michael D. Shear and Helene Cooper, “Trump Bars Refugees and Citizens of 7 Muslim Countries”, The New York Times, 27 January 2017.
  • “250 Suriyeli sınırı geçerek Türkiye’den sığınma istedi”, at http://t24.com.tr/haber/250- suriyeli-siniri-gecerek-turkiyeden-siginma-is,142095 (last visited 2 January 2017).
  • “Türkiye, Suriyelilere BM yardımını hiçbir zaman kabul etmedi”, Interview with Metin Çörabatır, at http://t24.com.tr/haber/turkiye-suriyelilere-bm-yardimini-hicbir-zaman- kabul-etmedi,243322 (last visited 6 January 2017).
  • “Geçici Korumamız Altındaki Suriyeliler”, at http://www.goc.gov.tr/icerik6/temporary- protection_915_1024_4748_icerik (last visited 8 February 2018).
  • Interview, UNHCR Ankara Office, 7 February 2017.
  • The data for 2016 or 2017 are not disclosed, at http://www.goc.gov.tr/icerik6/ international-protection_915_1024_4747_icerik (last visited 8 February 2018).
  • Türkiye’de çadır ve konteynerlardan oluşan mülteci kampları “barınma merkezi” adı altında anılmaktadır. Toplam 10 ilde 14 çadırkent ve 9 konteyner kent bulunmaktadır. For more information see: “Barınma Merkezlerinde Son Durum”, at https://www.afad. gov.tr/tr/2374/Barinma-Merkezlerinde-Son-Durum (last visited 2 January 2017)
  • For more information see: “Türkiye’deki Suriyeli Sığınmacılar 2013 Saha Araştırması Raporu”, at https://www.afad.gov.tr/upload/Node/2376/files/60-2013123015491- syrian-refugees-in-turkey-2013_baski_30_12_2013_tr.pdf (last visited 4 January 2017)
  • Murat Erdoğan, Türkiye’deki Suriyeliler: Toplumsal Kabul ve Uyum, İstanbul, Bilgi University Press, 2015.
  • “PM Erdoğan: We are hosting around two hundred Syrian brothers as guests”, at http://t24.com.tr/haber/erdogan-200-bine-yakin-suriyeli-kardesimizi-misafir- ediyoruz,218698 (last visited 10 November 2016)
  • President Erdoğan declared that approximately 10,000 high-skilled Syrians under temporary protection will be given citizenship in Turkey before the end of April 2016, “Erdoğan’dan Suriyeliler için Vatandaşlık Açıklaması”, at http://www.dw.com/tr/ erdo%C4%9Fandan-suriyeliler-i%C3%A7in-vatanda%C5%9Fl%C4%B1k-a%C3%A7 %C4%B1klamas%C4%B1/a-37043731 (last visited 20 January 2017)
  • “Geçici Koruma Yönetmeliği (Temporary Protection Regulation)”, 22 October 2014, at http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2014/10/20141022-15-1.pdf (last visited 20 January 2017).
  • Council Directive, 2001/55/EC, 20 July 2001, Temporary Protection Directive in Mass Influx Situations, at http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:200 1:212:0012:0023:EN:PDF (last visited 2 January 2017)
  • “Geçici Koruma Yönetmeliği” (Temporary Protection Regulation), 22 October 2014, at http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2014/10/20141022-15-1.pdf (last visited 15 January 2017)
  • Elizabeth Ferris and Kemal Kirişçi, “Consequences of Chaos”, Washington D.C.: Bookings Institution Press, (2016), p.35.
  • “Eastern Mediterranean Route”, at http://frontex.europa.eu/trends-and-routes/eastern- mediterranean-route/ (last visited 11 November 2016).
  • Başak Kale, “EU-Turkey Action Plan Imperfect Also Pragmatic”, On Turkey Series, German Marshall Fund of the US, Washington D.C., at http://www.gmfus.org/ publications/eu-turkey-action-plan-imperfect-also-pragmatic (last visited 15 January 2017).
  • Başak Kale, “Asylum Policy and the Future of Turkey-EU Relations: Between Cooperation and Conflict,” FEUTURE Online papers, March 2018, at www.feuture.eu (last visited 20 December 2017).
  • “Turkey PM: Syria no-fly zone needed”, at http://www.bbc.com/news/world- europe-33868627 (last visited 5 November 2016); “U.S. official: Turkey air base pact has ‘nearly the same effect’ as a no-fly zone”, at http://edition.cnn.com/2015/07/27/world/ turkey-isis-us/ (last visited 10 December 2016).
  • Ferris and Kirişçi, “Consequences of Chaos”, p. 49.
  • “Islamic State and the crisis in Iraq and Syria in maps”, at http://www.bbc.com/ news/world-middle-east-27838034 (last visited 20 January 2017); “How ISIS Spread in the Middle East”, The Atlantic, 29 October 2015, https://www.theatlantic.com/ international/archive/2015/10/how-isis-started-syria-iraq/412042/ (last visited 20 January 2017).
  • “Resettlement Fact Sheet 2015”, at http://www.unhcr.org/524c31a09 (last visited 10 December 2016).
  • UNHCR, Syria Regional Refugee Response: Inter-Agency Information Sharing Portal, at http://data.unhcr.org/syrianrefugees/regional.php (last visited 22 January 2017).
  • Eiko Thielemann and Torun Dewan, “The Myth of Free-riding”, p. 351.
  • Ferris and Kirişçi, “Consequences of Chaos”, p. 39. 57 Ibid.
  • For more details on general conditions see Ferris and Kirişçi, op. cit., 2016, pp.33-70; For services given by municipalities see also Murat Erdoğan, “Kopuş”tan “Uyum”a Kent Mültecileri: Suriyeli Mülteciler ve Belediyelerin Süreç Yönetimi, 2017, İstanbul, Marmara Belediyeler Birliği.
  • See funding requirements section UNHCR, Syria Regional Refugee Response: Inter- Agency Information Sharing Portal, at http://data.unhcr.org/syrianrefugees/regional. php (last visited 22 January 2017).
  • Başak Kale, Bir Gün, “Suriyeli Mültecilerin Umuda Yolculuğu”, at http://www.birgun. net/haber-detay/suriyeli-multecilerin-umuda-yolculugu-99572.html (last visited 15 October 2016).
  • “710.000 Migrants Entered EU in the First Nine Months of 2015”, at http://frontex. europa.eu/news/710-000-migrants-entered-eu-in-first-nine-months-of-2015- NUiBkk (last visited 10 January 2017).
  • “Eastern Mediterranean Route”, at http://frontex.europa.eu/trends-and-routes/eastern- mediterranean-route/ (last visited 15 January 2017).
  • Başak Kale, “Geri göndermeler Avrupa bütünleşmesinin sonu olabilir”, at, http:// www.birgun.net/haber-detay/geri-gondermeler-avrupa-butunlesmesinin-sonu- olabilir-108656.html (last visited 15 October 2016).
  • Sandra Lavenex, “Passing the Buck’: European Union Refugee Policies towards Central and Eastern Europe”, Journal of Refugee Studies, Vol. 11, No. 2 (1998), p. 128.
  • Council Directive 2003/9/EC, 27 January 2003.
  • Eiko Thielemann and Torun Dewan, “The Myth of Free-riding”, p. 352. 67 Ibid.
  • IOM, Migrant Fatalities in Mediterranean in 2015, at http://www.iom.int/news/iom- counts-3771-migrant-fatalities-mediterranean-2015 (last visited 15 January 2017).
  • This unit was later dissolved in May 2016 when PM Davutoğlu resigned from his position, “Davutoğlunu’nun İstifası: Şimdi Ne Olacak?”, at http://www.bbc.com/turkce/ haberler/2016/05/160505_davutoglu_analiz_arslan (last visited 15 January 2017).
  • Council Statement on Turkey-EU, 18.03.2016, at http://www.consilium.europa.eu/ press-releases-pdf/2016/3/40802210113_en.pdf (last visited 20 January 2017).
  • Kemal Kirişçi, “How the EU and Turkey can work together on refugees”, Brookings Institute, 3 December 2015, http://www.brookings.edu/blogs/order-from-chaos/ posts/2015/12/03-turkey-eu-deal-on-syrian-refugees-kirisci (last visited 22 January 2017).
  • Menekşe Tokyay, “Refugees to Pay High Price for the Turkey-EU Deal”, Al Arabiya, at http://english.alarabiya.net/en/perspective/analysis/2015/12/03/EU-Turkey-migrant- deal-brings-some-doubts.html (last visited 6 January 2017).
  • Council Statement on Turkey-EU, at http://www.consilium.europa.eu/press-releases- pdf/2016/3/40802210113_en.pdf (last visited 20 January 2017).
  • Özgehan Şenyuva and Çiğdem Üstün, “A New Episode in Turkey-EU Relations: Why so much Bitterness?”, On Turkey Series, at http://www.gmfus.org/publications/new- episode-eu-turkish-relations-why-so-much-bitterness (last visited 15 January 2017).
  • Emiliano Alessandri, The Fallacies of Treating Turkey as Europe’s Gatekeeper, On Turkey Series, at http://www.gmfus.org/publications/fallacies-treating-turkey-europes- gatekeeper#sthash.twSwjItk.dpuf (last visited 15 January 2017).
  • Başak Kale, “The EU-Turkey Action Plan is Imperfect, But Also Pragmatic and Even Strategic”, On Turkey Series, at http://www.gmfus.org/publications/eu-turkey-action- plan-imperfect-also-pragmatic (last visited 8 October 2017). 77 Ibid.
  • Başak Kale, Angeliki Dimitriadi, Elena Sanchez-Montijano, and Elif Süm. (2018), “Asylum Policy and the Future of Turkey-EU Relations: Between Cooperation and Conflict”, FEUTURE Paper Series No.18, at http://www.feuture.uni-koeln.de/sites/ feuture/pdf/FEUTURE_Online_Paper_No._18_Asylum_Policy.pdf (last visited 30 April 2018).
  • Ferris and Kirişçi, “Consequences of Chaos”, p. 39.
  • “Central European Countries Ressit New EU Refugee Quota Proposal”, Washington Post, 4 May 2016.
  • Mollie Gerver, “Refugee Quota Trading within the context of EU-ENP Cooperation: Rational, Bounded Rational and Ethical Critiques”, Journal of Contemporary European Research, Vol. 9, No. 1 (2013), pp. 60-77.
  • “Only 1% of Refugees are Resettled - Why are we so Threatened by them?”, The Guardian, 18 February 2017.
  • Başak Kale, “Türkiye’de Bulunan Suriyeli Mülteciler ve Uluslararası Toplumun Koruma Sağlamadaki Etkisizliği” [Syrian Refugees in Turkey and Ineffectiveness of International Community on Providing Protection], in Murat Erdoğan (ed.), Şehir ve Toplum, No. 6 (January 2016), pp. 85-102.
PERCEPTIONS: Journal of International Affairs-Cover
  • ISSN: 1300-8641
  • Yayın Aralığı: Yılda 2 Sayı
  • Başlangıç: 1996
  • Yayıncı: T.C Dışişleri Bakanlığı
Arşiv
Sayıdaki Diğer Makaleler

Başak KALE

Şebnem Köşer AKÇAPAR

Frank DÜVELL

Yelda Devlet KARAPINAR

O Can ÜNVER

Doğuş ŞİMŞEK

Şebnem Köşer AKÇAPAR, Damla Bayraktar AKSEL

Meltem İnce YENİLMEZ