in favor of effortlessly linking their modern identities to the pre-Ottoman medi- eval period. Throughout the first chapter, the reliance and verity of this medieval linkage is convincingly refuted when highlighting the nuances of identity and authorities from the 1300s onwards. Documents produced by these ancient po- lities are utilized by many historians to claim modern ethno-religious links, ho- wever, the author finds that records indicate a range of affiliations and that there was no unifying language or overarching culture which is often used to reaffirm primordial ties to the past. Interestingly, many of the nationalist heroes associated with these dynasties betray their relationship asserted with their homeland and putative ethnicities when we see that they fought alongside coalitions associated with the Ottomans during transitional power periods. The author reasons that throughout history, individuals in the Balkans found their standing in society ensuing from their social statuses, church associations, local affinities, and po- wer authority that were sometimes constantly shifting, rather than monolithic