The Reel Indian or The Real Indian?: The Three Modes of Representation of Native Americans in Western Movies
Using the lenses of colonialism and gender, this article explores
the evolving nature and perception of Native American women’s leadership historically and in the present. Historically, women and men had
different yet equally important leadership roles to play within the community. These roles were inextricably interdependent. Euro-American
colonialism through conquest and religion brought concomitant gender
ideologies that slowly tore at the fabric of indigenous communities and
ultimately altered the nature of gender parity within community leadership. Today, Native American women are taking back a degree of the
significant sociopolitical power they once exercised. Native women
are rising to the top ranks of leadership in the nation as members of
the US House of Representatives, in their states as executive officers
and as state representatives in their state legislatures, as well as in their
communities as tribal officials, education advocates, environmental activists, and as culturally empowered mothers, sisters, and daughters.
___
- A Man Called Horse. Directed by Elliot Silverstein, performances
by Richard Harris and Judith Anderson, Cinema Center Films,
1970.
- Atını Seven Kovboy. Directed by Aram Gülyüz, performances by Sadri
Alışık, Figen Han, Elvan Film, 1975.
- Avatar. Directed by James Cameron, performances by Sam Worthington, Zoe Saldana and Sigourney Weaver, Twentieth Century Fox
Film Corporation, Dune Entertainment and Ingenious Film Partners, 2009.
- Basinger, Jeanine and Jeremy Arnold. The World War II Combat Film:
Anatomy of a Genre. Wesleyan University Press, 2003.
- Berger, Thomas. Little Big Man: A Novel. Dial Press Trade, 1989.
- Bird, Elizabeth S. “Introduction: Constructing the Indian, 1830s-1990s”.
Dressing in Feathers: The Construction of the Indian in American Popular Culture, edited by Elisabeth S. Bird, Westview
Press, 1996, pp. 1-12.
- Buscombe, Edward. ‘Injuns!’ Native Americans in the Movies. Reaktion Books, 2006.
- Covered Wagon, The. Directed by James Cruze, performances by J.
Warren Kerrigan and Lois Wilson, Famous Players-Lasky Corporation, 1923.
- Cowie, Peter. A Concise History of the Cinema: Before 1940. A. Zwemmer, A. S. Barnes, 1971.
- Dances with Wolves. Directed by Kevin Costner, performances by
Kevin Costner and Mary McDonnell, Tig Productions and Majestic Films International, 1990.
- DeLoria Jr., Vine. “Indian Humor.” Vine Deloria, Custer Died for your
Sins: An Indian Manifesto. Macmillan, 1969, pp. 146-167.
- Drums along the Mohawk. Directed by John Ford, performances by
Claudette Colbert and Henry Fonda, Twentieth Century Fox
Film Corporation, 1939.
- Fitz, Karsten. “Screen Indians in the EFL-Classroom: Transnational
Perspectives.” American Studies Journal, vol. 51, 2008. . Accessed 4
Sept. 2011.
- Hall, Stuart. “The Work of Representation,” Representation: Cultural
Representations and Signifying Practices, edited by Stuart Hall.
Open University Press, 1997.
- Henderson, Brian. “The Searchers: An American Dilemma.” Movies and Methods, edited by Bill Nichols. California University
Press, 1985, pp. 429-50.
- Herzberg, Bob. Savages and Saints: The Changing Image of American
Indians in Westerns. McFarland & Company, 2008.
- House Made of Dawn. Directed by Richardson Morse, performances
by Larry Littlebird and Judith Doty, Firebird Productions, 1987.
- IMDB (The Internet Movie Database). May 1999. Internet Movie
Database Ltd. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0031971/trivia. Accessed 11 September 2011.
- Iron Horse. Directed by John Ford, performances by George O’Brien
and Madge Bellamy, Fox Film Corporation, 1924.
- Kanunsuz Kahraman – Ringo Kid. Directed by Zafer Davutoğlu, performances by Cüneyt Arkın, Sevda Ferdağ, Sine-Film, 1967.
Kilpatrick, Jacquelyn. Celluloid Indians: Native Americans and Film.
Nebraska University Press, 1999.
- Knopf, Kerstin. Decolonizing the Lens of Power: Indigenous Films in
North America. Rodopi, 2008.
- Last of Mohicans, The. Directed by Michael Mann, performances by
Daniel Day-Lewis and Madeleine Stowe, Morgan Creek Productions, 1992.
- Legend of Walks Far Woman, The. Directed by Mel Damski, performances by Raquel Welch and Bradford Dillman. EMI Television, Lee Levinson Productions and Raquel Welch Productions, 1982.
- Lewis, Randolph. Alanis Obomsawin: The Vision of a Native Filmmaker. Nebraska University Press, 2006.
- Little Big Man. Directed by Arthur Penn, performances by Dustin
Hoffman and Faye Dunaway, Cinema Center Films and Stockbridge-Hiller Productions, 1970.
- Massacre, The. Directed by D.W. Griffith, performances by Wilfred
Lucas and Blanche Sweet, Biograph Company, 1914.
- Marubbio, M. Elise. Killing the Indian Maiden: Images of Native
American Women in Film. The University Press of Kentucky,
2006.
- “Native American Issues Today: Current Problems & Struggles 2020.”
PowWows.com. 7 September 2019. https://www.powwows.com/
issues-and-problems-facing-native-americans-today/ Accessed
15 July 2020.
- Northern Exposure. Created by Joshua Brand and John Falsey, performances by Rob Morrow and Janine Turner. Cine-Nevada Productions, Universal TV and Falahey/Austin Street Productions, 1990-1995.
- Penn, Arthur, Michael Chaiken and Paul Cronin. Arthur Penn: Interviews (Conversations with Filmmakers. University Press of Mississippi, 2008.
- Petroleuses Les. Directed by Christian-Jaque and Guy Casaril, performances by Brigitte Bardot, Claudia Cardinale. Copercines, Cooperativa Cinematográfica, Films EGE, Francos Films, 1971.
- Pewewardy, Cornel. “Fluff and Feathers: Treatment of American Indians in the Literature and the Classroom.” Equity & Excellence in
Education, vol. 31, no. 1, 1998, pp. 69-76, Accessed 4 May
2011.
- Powwow Highway. Directed by Jonathan Wacks, performances by A.
Martinez and Gary Farmer, Handmade Films, 1989.
- Prats, Armando José. Invisible Natives: Myth and Identity in the American Western. Cornell University Press, 2002.
- Return of A Man Called Horse, The. Directed by Irvin Kershner, performances by Richard Harris and Gale Sondergaard, Sandy
Howard Productions, 1976.
- Rollins, Peter C. and John E. O’Connor, eds. Hollywood’s Indian: The
Portrayal of the Native American in Film. The University Press
of Kentucky, 1998.
- Run of Arrow. Directed by Samuel Fuller, performances by Rod Steiger and Sara Montiel. Globe Enterprises, 1957.
- Searchers, The. Directed by John Ford, performances by John Wayne,
Jeffrey Hunter and Vera Miles. C.V. Whitney Pictures and Warner Bros. Pictures, 1956.
- Singer, Beverly R. Wiping the War Paint Off the Lens: Native American Film and Video. University of Minnesota Press, 2001.
- ---. “Native Americans and Cinema.” Grant, Barry Keith. Ed. Schirmer
Encyclopedia of Film. Vol. 3. Thomson Gale, 2006, pp. 211-214.
- Smoke Signals. Directed by Chris Eyre, performances by Adam Beach
and Evan Adams, Shadowcatcher Entertainment and Welb Film
Pursuits Ltd., 1998.
- Soldier Blue. Directed by Ralph Nelson, performances by Candice
Bergen and Peter Strauss, AVCO Embassy Pictures, 1970.
- Stagecoach, The. Directed by John Ford, performances by John Wayne
and Claire Trevor, Walter Wanger Productions, 1939.
- Star Trek: Voyager. Directed by Rick Berman, Michael Piller and Jeri
Taylor, performances by Kate Mulgrew, Robert Beltran and
Roxann Dawson, Paramount Television and United Paramount
Network, 1995-2001.
- Star Wars: Episode I - The Phantom Menace. Directed by George Lucas, performances by Ewan McGregor, Liam Neeson and Natalie Portman, Lucasfilm, 1999.
- Triumphs of a Man Called Horse. Directed by John Hough, performances by Richard Harris and Michael Beck. Hesperia Films
SA, Redwing Productions and Transpacific Media Productions,
1983.
- Vanishing American, The. Directed by George B. Seitz, performances
by Richard Dix and Lois Wilson, Famous Players-Lasky Corporation, 1925.
- White Dawn. Directed by Philip Kaufman, performances by Warren
Oates and Timothy Bottoms, American Film Properties, Filmways Pictures and Paramount Pictures, 1974.