Sembolden Benzerliğe: Yunan-Pers Geleneğinde Sikke Portesinin Ortaya Çıkışı

Yaşayan (veya yeni ölmüş) kişilerin sikkeler üzerindeki portrelerinin açık bir şekilde tanınabilen şahsi özelliklerle betimlenmesi Yunan ve Pers kültür bölgelerinin kesiştiği noktada, siyasi iktidar yapılarının git gide karmaşıklaşması sonucunda geliştirilmiştir. Baskın bir topluluğun simgesi veya kraliyet otoritesinin genel özelliklerine sahip bir figür bu şekilde betimlenen paranın değerini garanti etmesi açısından başta yeterli olduğu yerlerde, bir bölgede sikke baskılarının birbirlerine rakip sikke darpçıları aracılığıyla artan dolaşımı çeşitli tedavüllerin ve her bir resmin aktarması gereken iktidar iddialarının çok daha incelikli farklılaşmasını gerekli kılmıştı. Bu, tıpkı Akhamenid krallarının emri altındakiler tarafından basılan çeşitli sikke serilerinde olduğu gibi, farklı iktidar seviyeleriyle belirli bir hiyerarşiyi ifade etmek için ikonografinin kullanıldığı durumlarda da geçerliydi. Başlangıçta bu sikkeler sadece en tepedeki efendinin otoritesini göstermek amaçlıydı. Ancak bazen de iktidardaki olan sistemle rekabet için kullanıldı, ki bu da her bir emisyonu bastıran kişinin şahsi kimliğini daha kuvvetli vurgulayan karmaşık görsel mesajları oluşturmuştu. Sayısız hanedan boylarının nispeten küçük ve daha üst bir etkinin doğrudan etkileşim çevresinin ötesindeki izole ortamlarda birbirleriyle yarıştığı Lykia’nın farklı sikke tedavüllerinde, çeşitli sikke darpçılarının, adlarına basılan sikkeler üzerindeki şahsi tasvirlerin kademeli benimsenişi aracılığıyla farklılaştırma denemelerinin yapılmış olması tesadüfi değildir. Büyük İskender’in seferleri nedeniyle geleneksel sistemlerinin çözülmesi ve Anadolu ile Yakın Doğu’daki çeşitli bölgelerin politik olarak yeniden düzenlenmesi, bölgesel iktidar merkezlerinin artmasına yol açmıştı; bunların hepsi iktidar iddialarını yansıtan kendi sikkelerini basıyorlardı. Ptolemaioslar ve Seleukosların sikkelerinden itibaren okuma yazma bilmeyenlerin dahi kralları birbirinden ayrıt edebilmeleri amacıyla sikkeler üzerine dönemin hükümdarının kendi portresi git gide daha fazla betimlendi. Sadece, çeşitli güç bloklarının kıyısında köşesindeki, yabancı paraların dolaşımının olmadığı ücra bölgelerde yer alan yerlerde kralın yalnızca sembolik (bireyselleşmiş yüz tasviri olmayan) betimlemesi sikkeler üzerinde bir süre devam etmiştir.

Anahtar Kelimeler:

Nümizmatik, Persia, Lykia, Kilikia, Yunanistan, (sikke) portreleri, Hellenizm

From Symbol to Likeness: The Emergence of the Coin Portrait in the Greek-Persian Tradition

The rendition of living (or just deceased) persons with clearly recognizable individual features on coins was developed at the intersection of Greek and Persian cultural areas as a result of the grown complexity of political power-structures. Where at first the emblem of a dominant community or a figure with the general attributes of royal authority had been sufficient to guarantee for the value of the money thus hallmarked, the increased circulation of coinages by rivalling issuers within one area called for a far more sophisticated differentiation of the various issues and the claims to rulership, which the respective images were meant to transmit. This was also true in cases, where the iconography was devised to express a certain hierarchy with different levels of power as in the various series struck by subordinates of the Achaemenid kings. Initially those coins were just intended to represent the authority of the overlord, but occasionally they were also used in competition to the ruling system, which made rather complex visual messages with a stronger emphasis on the personal identity of the respective issuer necessary. It is not by chance that at the different coinages of Lycia, where numerous dynastic clans competed with each other in a comparatively small and secluded space beyond the immediate range of superior influence, the first attempts to a distinction of the various issuers by a gradual adoption of their individual likenesses on the coins in their names have been made. The dissolution of the traditional order and the new political arrangement of the various territories in Anatolia and the Middle East brought about by the campaign of Alexander led to a multiplication of regional power-centres, – all with their own coin issues, that represented competing claims to rulership. Beginning with the coinages of the Ptolemies and of the Seleucids more and more individual portraits of the respective rulers were applied on the coins in order to make the issuing entities easier to distinguish from each other even by illiterate users. Only in some rather remote and secluded areas at the periphery of the different power-blocks, where there was no constant influx of other currencies, a merely symbolic representation of the rulers was still functional for some time.

Keywords:

Numismatics, Persia, Lycia, Cilicia, Greece, Portraits, Hellenism,

PDF

___

M. Alram, Nomina propria Iranica in nummis. Materialgrundlagen zu den iranischen Personennamen auf antiken Münzen (Iranisches Personennamenbuch 4), Wien 1986.
M. Alram, Eine neue Drachme des Vahbarz (Oborzos) aus der Persis?, Litterae Numismaticae Vindobonenses 3, 1987, 147-155.
M. Alram, Die Vorbildwirkung der arsakidischen Münzprägung, Litterae Numismaticae Vindobonenses 3, 1987, 117-146.
L. Asmonti, Conon the Athenian. Warfare and politics in the Aegaean, 414-386 BC, Stuttgart 2015.
J. Bing, Datames and Mazaeus: The iconography of revolt and restauration in Cilicia, Historia 47, 1998, 41-76.
B. V. Head, Catalogue of the Greek coins of Ionia, ed. by R. S. Poole (A Catalogue of Greek coins in the British Museum), London 1882.
F. Bodenstedt, Die Elektronmünzen von Phokaia und Mytilene, Tübingen 1981.
J. Bodzek, Pharnabazos in Kyzikos. Der Seesieg in Kunst und Numismatik zu Beginn des 4. Jhs. v. Chr., in: B. Kluge – B. Weisser (eds.), XII. Internationaler Numismatischer Kongress, Berlin 1997. Akten - Proceedings - Actes, Bd. 1, Berlin 2000, 170-178.
H. A. Cahn, Tissaphernes in Astyra, Archäologischer Anzeiger 1985, 587-594.
H. A. Cahn, Le monnayage des satrapes: Iconographie et signification, in: R. Descat (ed.), L’or perse et l’histoire grecque, Actes de la Table Ronde CNRS, Bordeaux 21-22 mars 1989, Talence 1990, 97-105.
I. Carradice, The „Regal“ Coinage of the Persian Empire, in: Coinage and Administration in the Athenian and Persian Empires. The Ninth Oxford Symposium on Coinage and Monetary History (BAR 343), Oxford 1987, 73-95.
M. Cool-Root, Evidence from Persepolis for the dating of Persian and archaic Greek coinage, in: NC 1988, 1-12.
R. Curiel – D. Schlumberger, Trésors monétaires d’Afghanistan. Mémoires de la délégation archéologique française en Afghanistan, Paris 1953.
N. Dürr, Neues aus Babylonien, Schweizer Münzblätter 94, 1974, 33-36.
K. Ehling, Hellenistische Könige mit Elefantenexuvie, in: A. Pangerl (ed.), Portraits - 400 years of Hellenistic portraits, München 2020, 315-326.
D. Engels, A new Frataraka-chronology, Latomus 72, 2013, 28-82.
M. Garrison, Archers at Persepolis: The emergence of Royal Ideology at the Heart of the Empire, in: J. Curtis – St. John Simpson (eds.), The world of Achaemenid Persia, Proceedings of a conference at the British Museum 2005, London-New York 2010, 337-368.
M. Garrison – M. Cool-Root, Seals on the Persepolis fortification-tablets 1: Images of heroic encounter (Oriental Institute Publ. 117), Chicago 2001.
M. Grabowski, Abdissares of Adiabene and the Batas-Herir relief, Światowit. Annual of the Institute of Archaeology of the University of Warsaw 9 (50), 2011, 117-139.
E. Haerink – B. Overlaet, Altar shrines and Firealtars? – Architectural representations on Frataraka Coinage, Iranica Antiqua XLIII, 2008, 207-223.
C. M. Harrison, Coins of the Persian satraps, Diss. Univ. of Pennsylvania 1982, Philadelphia PA 1982.
F. L. Holt, Alexander the Great and the mystery of the Elephant Medaillons, Berkeley 2005.
O. D. Hoover, Overstruck Seleucid Coins, in: A. Houghton – C. Lorber – O. Hoover (eds.), Seleucid coins – A comprehensive catalogue II, New York-Lancaster PA 2008, 209-230.
A. Houghton – C. Lorber, Seleucid Coins – A comprehensive catalogue I, New York-Lancaster PA 2002.
S. Hurter, Der Tissaphernes-Fund, in: O. Mørkholm – N. Waggoner (eds.), Greek Numismatics and Archaeology – Essays presented to Margaret Thompson, Wetteren 1979, 97-108.
H. Klinkott, Der Satrap. Ein achaimenidischer Amtsträger und seine Handlungsspielräume, Frankfurt/M. 2005.
D. Klose – W. Müseler, Statthalter – Rebellen – Könige. Die Münzen aus Persepolis von Alexander dem Grossen zu den Sasaniden (Staatliche Münzsammlung), München 2008.
P. Kosmin, Time and its adversaries in the Seleucid empire, Cambridge MA 2018.
F. L. Kovacs, Two Persian Pharaonic Portraits, JNG 50, 2000 (2002), 55-60.
F. L. Kovacs, Armenian coinage in the classical period, Lancaster PA 2016.
B. Kritt, The early Seleucid mint of Susa, Lancaster PA 1997.
B. Kritt, The Seleucid mint of Ai Khanoum, Lancaster PA 2016.
G. Le Rider, La naissance de la monnaie. Pratiques monétaires de l’Orient ancient, Paris 2001.
C. Lorber, Coins of the Ptolemaic Empire, Part I (1+2), New York 2018.
F. Maffre, Le monnayage de Pharnabaze frappé dans l’atelier de Cyzique, in: NC 2004, 1-32.
L. Mildenberg, On the so-called Satrapal Coinage, in: O. Casabonne (ed.), Mécanismes et innovations monétaires dans l’Anatolie achéménide. Numismatique et histoire. Actes de la Table Ronde Internationale d’Istanbul, 22-23 mai 1997, Istanbul-Paris 2000, 9-20.
O. Mørkholm – J. Zahle, The coinage of Kuprlli, Acta Archaeologica XLIII, 1972, 57-113.
O. Mørkholm – J. Zahle, The coinages of the Lycian dynast Kheriga, Kherẽi and Erbbina, Acta Archaeologica XLVII, 1976, 47-90.
R. A. Moysey, The silver stater issues of Pharnabazos and Datames from the mint of Tarsus in Cilicia, in: ANS MN 31, 1986, 7-61.
W. Müseler, Die sogenannten dunklen Jahrhunderte der Persis. Anmerkungen zu einem lange vernachlässigten Thema, in JNG 55/56, 2005/06, 75-103.
W. Müseler, Lykische Münzen in europäischen Privatsammlungen, Istanbul 2016.
W. Müseler, Ddẽnewele. Der vergessene Dynast vom Xanthos-Tal und das Nereïden-Monument, JNG 67, 2017, 13-30.
W. Müseler, Das Geld der Strategen – Pharnabazos und die Finanzen der persischen Kriegsflotte, JNG 68, 2018, 47-129.
W. Müseler, Beyond the Xanthos Valley. Rulers and mints in Eastern and Central Lycia at the time of the “dynasty of Xanthos”, Gephyra 15, 2018, 11-28.
W. Müseler, The dating and the sequence of the Persid Frataraka revisited, Koinon 1, 2018, 84-106.
W. Müseler, Beyond the Xanthos Valley II. Lycian rulers at Telmessos and in the Carian borderland around the middle of the 5th century BC, in: M. Nollé et al. (eds.), Panegyrikoi Logoi - Festschrift für Johannes Nollé zum 65. Geburtstag, Bonn 2019, 361-370.
W. Müseler, Nergal and the Amazon - A tale of three cities, Schweizer Münzblätter 275, 2019, 99-114.
W. Müseler – D. Schürr, Zur Chronologie in den Inschriften auf dem Agora-Pfeiler von Xanthos (TL 44), den betroffenen Dynasten und ihren Münzen, Klio 100(2), 2018, 381-406.
E. T. Newell, The coinages of Demetrius Poliorcetes, Oxford 1927.
H. Nicolet-Pierre, Argent et or frappés en Babylonie entre 331 et 311 ou de Mazday à Séleucos, in: M. Amandry – S. Hurter (eds.), Travaux de numismatique grecque offerts à G. Le Rider, London 1999, 285-305.
M. J. Price, The “Porus” Coinage of Alexander the Great: A symbol of concord and community, in: S. Scheers (ed.), Studia Paulo Naster oblata I, Louvain 1982, 75-85.
M. J. Price, Circulation in Babylon in 323 BC, in: W. Metcalf (ed.), Mnemata - Papers in memory of Nancy M. Waggoner, New York 1991, 63-75.
E. S. G. Robinson, Greek coins acquired by the British Museum 1938-1948, in: NC 1948, 43-59.
S. Ruzicka, Trouble in the West. Egypt and the Persian Empire 525-332 BCE, Oxford 2012.
T. Şare, The sculpture of the Heroon of Perikle at Limyra: the making of a Lycian king, Anatolian Studies 63, 2013, 55-74.
V. Sarkosh-Curtis, The Frataraka coins of Persis: Bridging the gap between Achaemenid and Sasanian Persia, in: J. Curtis – St. J. Simpson (eds.), The world of Achaemenid Persia, Proceedings of a conference at the British Museum 2005, London-New York 2010, 379-394.
H. Schwarz, Polis und Individuum: Porträts auf archaischen und klassischen griechischen Münzen, in: A. Pangerl (ed.), Portraits – 400 years of Hellenistic portraits, München 2020, 207-212.
A. S. Shahbazi, An Achaemenid symbol I: A farewell to “Frawhar” and “Ahuramazda”, AMI 7, 1974, 135-144.
A. S. Shahbazi, An Achaemenid symbol II: Farnah (“God given fortune symbolized”), AMI 13, 1980, 119-147.
J. Shannahan, The Baal/Figure in the Winged Disc Staters of Tiribazus, in: NC 2018, 15-32.
M. R. Shayegan, Arsacids and Sasanians. Political ideology in post-Hellenistic and late antique Persia, Cambridge 2011.
Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum [Dänemark]. The Royal Collection of Coins and Medals, Danish National Museum. Supplement: Acquisitions 1942-1996, bearb. v. S. Schulz – J. Zahle, Kopenhagen 2002.
A. Stewart, Faces of Power – Alexanders image and Hellenistic politics, Berkeley 1993.
D. Stronach, Early Achaemenid coinage. Perspectives from the homeland, Iranica Antiqua 24, 1989, 255-279.
M. Thompson, The mints of Lysimachus, in: C. M. Kraay – G. K. Jenkins (eds.), Essays in Greeek coinage presented to S. Robinson, Oxford 1968, 163-182.
P. Thonemann, Lycia, Athens and Amorges, in: J. Ma et al. (eds.), Interpreting the Athenian Empire, London 2009, 167-194.
P. Thonemann, The Hellenistic world: Using coins as sources, Cambridge 2015.
P. A. van t’ Haaff – D. S. van Horn, The coinage of Persepolis, Lancaster PA 2020.
M. P. Wahl, Motivwanderungen. Überlegungen zu Übernahme und Verbreitung von Münzmotiven der Westgriechen in der Klassik, Diss. Wien 2017.
U. Wartenberg, Die Geburt der Münze. Neue Wege der Forschung, Mitteilungen der Ősterreichischen Numismatischen Gesellschaft 56/1, 2016, 30-49.
L. Weidauer, Probleme der frühen Elektronprägung, Fribourg 1975.
W. Weiser, Die Eulen von Kyros dem Jüngeren. Zu den ersten Münzporträts lebender Menschen, ZPE 76, 1989, 267-296.
U. Westermark, Das Bildnis des Philetairos von Pergamon, Stockholm 1961.
H. -D. Westlake, Decline and Fall of Tissaphernes, Historia 30, 1981, 257-279.
J. Wiesehöfer, Die “dunklen Jahrhunderte” der Persis. Untersuchungen zur Geschichte und Kultur von Fārs in frühhellenistischer Zeit (330-140 v. Chr.), München 1994.
J. Wiesehöfer, Tarkumuwa und das Farnah, in: W. F. M. Henkelman – A. Kuhrt (eds.), A Persian Perspective. Essays in memory of Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg, Leiden 2003, 173-187.
J. Zahle, Persian satraps and Lycian dynasts: The evidence of the diadems, in: T. Hackens – R. Weiller (eds.), Proceedings of the 9th International Congress of Numismatics (Bern 1979), Löwen 1982, 101-112.
O. Zervos, The early tetradrachms of Ptolemy I, in: ANS MN 13, 1967, 1-16.