Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitliği Ve Ekonomik Büyüme

Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitliği Ve Ekonomik Büyüme Bugünlerde kalkınma çalışan profesyonellerinin öne sürdüğü politika tavsiyelerinden biri, toplumsal cinsiyet eşitsizliğinin iktisadi büyüme için olumsuz etkisini dikkate alır: etkinlik amacıyla toplumsal cinsiyet eşitliği savı. Bu savın ardındaki iktisadi mantık çok açıktır: kadınların eğitim, istihdam ve diğer iktisadi olanaklardan dışlanması potansiyel işgücü ve girişimci havuzunu kısıtlar ve ekonomileri önemli bir iktisadi değerden mahrum bırakır. Kadına karşı ayrımcılık ve toplumsal cinsiyet eşitsizliği ayrıca doğurganlığı artırma eğilimindedir. Bunun yanı sıra bir sonraki dönemde beşeri sermayenin oluşturulması için mevcut dönemde yapılan yatırımları düşürür ve hane üretkenliğinin büyümesini kısıtlar ki bütün bunlar kişi başına düşen gelir düzeyinin büyüme oranının düşük kalmasıyla ilişkilendirilmiştir. Bu makalede, öncelikle, birçok iktisatçının iktisadi büyümeyi nasıl ele aldığını ve oluşturulan modellerde toplumsal cinsiyetin rolünü kısaca özetleyerek, toplumsal cinsiyet eşitliğinin büyümeye nasıl bir katkı sağladığını eleştirel bir biçimde inceliyoruz. Daha sonra, toplumsal cinsiyet eşitliğinin iktisadi büyüme ve verimlilik üzerindeki doğrudan etkilerine dair yapılmış makro ve mikroekonomik çalışmaları tarayarak toplumsal cinsiyet eşitliğinden iktisadi büyümeye götürdüğü varsayılan patikaları ayrıntılarıyla inceliyoruz. Bu bağlamda, doğurganlığın azalması, çocuklara yapılan yatırımlar ve siyasi yolsuzlukların daha az olması gibi dolaylı mekanizmalara dair yapılmış araştırmaları da değerlendiriyoruz. Çalışmayı, yakın zamanda yapılmış, belli bazı koşullar altında toplumsal cinsiyet eşitsizliğinin aslında iktisadi büyümeye katkıda bulunduğunu savunan araştırmalara değinerek sonlandırıyoruz

Anahtar Kelimeler:

Toplumsal cinsiyet, Büyüme, Eşitsizlik, Etkinlik, Ayrımcılık

Gender Equality and Economic Growth

One of the most compelling policy arguments proffered by development professionals these days is that gender inequality is bad for economic growth – the efficiency argument for gender equality. The economic logic for this argument is straightforward: excluding women from education, employment and other economic opportunities limits the pool of potential workers and innovators and robs economies of a key productive asset. Discrimination against women and gender inequality also tend to raise fertility, lower investments in the next generation of human capital, and restrict household productivity growth, all of which have been linked with lower rates of per capita income growth. In this article we critically explore how gender equality contributes to economic growth, beginning with a brief overview of how most economists think about economic growth, and the role of gender in these models. We then detail the hypothesized pathways from gender equality to economic growth, covering both macroeconomic and microeconomic studies of the direct effects that gender equality has on economic growth and productivity, as well as research on the indirect mechanisms of fertility decline, investments in children, and less political corruption. We conclude with a discussion of recent research which argues that, under certain circumstances, gender inequality may actually contribute to economic growth

Keywords:

Gender, Growth, Inequality, Efficiency, Discrimination,

___

Aghion, Philippe, Eve Caroli and Cecilia García-Penalosa. “Inequality and Economic Growth: The Perspective of the New Growth Theories.” Journal of Economic Literature 37, no. 4 (1999): 1615-1660.
Ahituv, Avner and Omer Moav. “Fertility Clubs and Economic Growth.” In Inequality and Growth. Theory and Policy Implications, edited by Theo S. Eicher and Stephen J. Turnovsky, 61-87. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2003.
Alesina, Alberto and Dani Rodrik. “Distributive Politics and Economic Growth.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 109, no. 2 (1994): 465-490.
Amsden, Alice H. Asia’s Next Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.
Bénabou, Roland. “Unequal Societies: Income Distribution and the Social Contract.” American Economic Review 90, no. 1 (2000): 96-129.
Birdsall, Nancy, David Ross, and Richard Sabot. “Inequality and Growth Reconsidered: Lessons from East Asia.” The World Bank Economic Review 9, no. 3 (1995): 477-508.
Blackden, C. Mark and Chitra Bhanu. Gender, Growth, and Poverty Reduction. Special Program of Assistance for Africa, 1998 Status Report on Poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa. World Bank Technical Paper No. 428, 1999.
Bloom, David E. and Jeffrey G. Williamson. “Demographic Transitions and Economic Miracles in Emerging Asia.” NBER Working Paper No. 6268, 1997.
Dollar, David, Raymond Fisman and Roberta Gatti. “Are women really the “fairer” sex? Corruption and women in government.” Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 46 (2001): 423-429.
Dollar, David and Roberta Gatti. Gender Inequality, Income, and Growth: Are Good Times Good for Women? World Bank Policy Research Report Working Paper Series No. 1, World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1999.
Duflo, Ester. “Gender Equality in Development.” Unpublished ms., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Esteve-Volart, Berta. “Gender Discrimination and Growth: Theory and Evidence from India.” Unpublished ms., London School of Economics and Political Science, 2004.
Esteve-Volart, Berta. “Sex Discrimination and Growth.” International Monetary Fund Working Paper, 2000.
Folbre, Nancy. Who Pays for the Kids? Gender and the Structures of Constraint. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.
Galor, Oded and David N. Weil. “The Gender Gap, Fertility and Growth.” The American Economic Review 86, no. 3 (1996): 374-387.
Greenhalgh, Susan. “Sexual Stratification: The Other Side of ‘Growth with Equity’ in East Asia.” Population and Development Review 11, no. 2 (1985): 265-314.
Haddad, Lawrence, John Hoddinott, and Harold Alderman, eds. Intrahousehold Resource Allocation in Developing Countries: Methods, Models and Policy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
Hill, M. Anne and Elizabeth M. King. “Women’s education and economic well-being.” Feminist Economics 1 no. 2 (1995): 21-46.
Hsiung, Ping-Chun. Living Rooms as Factories: Class, Gender, and the Satellite Factory System in Taiwan. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1996.
Katz, Elizabeth. “The intra-household economics of voice and exit.” Feminist Economics 3, no. 3(1997): 25
Klasen, Stephen. “Pro Poor Growth and Gender: What can we learn from the literature and the OPPG case studies?” Discussion Paper to the Operationalizing Pro-Poor Growth (OPPG) Working Group of AFD, DFID, BMZ and the World Bank, 2005.
Klasen, Stephen. “Low Schooling for Girls, Slower Growth for All? Cross-Country Evidence on the Effect of Gender Inequality in Education on Economic Development.” The World Bank Economic Review 16, no. 3 (2002): 345-373.
Klasen, Stephen. Does Gender Inequality Reduce Growth and Development? Evidence from Cross-Country Regressions. World Bank Policy Research Report on Gender and Development, Working Paper Series No. 7, World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1999.
Klasen, Stephen and Francesca Lamanna. “The Impact of Gender Inequality in Education and Employment on Economic Growth: New Evidence for a Panel of Countries.” Feminist Economics 15, no. 3 (2009): 91-132.
Knowles, Stephen, Paula K. Lorgelly, and P. Dorian Owen. “Are educational gender gaps a brake on economic development? Some cross-country empirical evidence.” Oxford Economic Papers 54 (2002): 118-149.
Lagerlöf, Nils-Peter. “Gender Equality and Long-run Growth.” Journal of Economic Growth 8, no. 4 (2003): 426.
Lewis, W. Arthur. “Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labour.” Manchester School 22 (1954): 139-91.
Lundberg, Shelly J., Robert A. Pollak and Terence J. Wales. “Do Husbands and Wives Pool Their Resources? Evidence from the United Kingdom Child Benefit.” The Journal of Human Resources 32, no. 3 (1997): 463
McElroy, Margorie B. “The Empirical Content of Nash-Bargained Household Behavior.” Journal of Human Resources 25, no. 4 (1990): 559-583.
Murthi, Mamta, Anne-Catherine Guio and Jean Dreze. “Mortality, Fertility, and Gender Bias in India: A District-Level Analysis.” Population and Development Review 21, no. 4 (1995): 745-782.
Perotti, Roberto. “Growth, Income Distribution, and Democracy: What the Data Say.” Journal of Economic Growth 1, no. 2 (1996): 149-187.
Persson, Torsten and Guido Tabellini. “Is Inequality Harmful for Growth?” American Economic Review 84, no. 3(1994): 600-621.
Quisumbing, Agnes R. “What Have We Learned from Research on Intrahousehold Allocation?” In Household Decisions, Gender and Development: A Synthesis of Recent Research, edited by Agnes R. Quisumbing, 1-16. Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute, 2003.
Quisumbing, Agnes R. and John A. Maluccio. “Resources at Marriage and Intrahousehold Allocation: Evidence from Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Indonesia, and South Africa. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics , no. 3 (2003): 283-327.
Rodrik, Dani. “Introduction: What Do We Learn from Country Narratives?” In In Search of Prosperity: Analytic Narratives on Economic Growth, ed. Dani Rodrik, 1-19. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2003.
Rodrik, Dani, Arvind Subramanian and Francesco Trebbi. “Institutions Rule: The Primacy of Institutions over Geography and Integration in Economic Development.” Journal of Economic Growth 9, no. 2 (2004): 131
Saito, Katrine, Hailu Mekonnen, and Daphne Spurling. “Raising the productivity of women farmers in Sub- Saharan Africa.” World Bank Discussion Papers, Africa Technical Department Series No. 230, 1994.
Seguino, Stephanie. “Gender, Distribution, and Balance of Payments Constrained Growth in Developing Countries.” Review of Political Economy 22, no. 3 (2010): 373-404.
Seguino, Stephanie. “Accounting for Gender in Asian Economic Growth.” Feminist Economics 6, no. 3 (2000): 27-58.
Seguino, Stephanie. “Gender Inequality and Economic Growth: A Cross-Country Analysis.” World Development 28, no. 7 (2000): 1211-1230.
Solow, Robert M. “A Contribution to the Theory of Economic Growth.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics , no. 1 (1956): 65-94.
Tzannatos, Zafiris. “Women and Labor Market Changes in the Global Economy: Growth Helps, Inequalities Hurt and Public Policy Matters.” World Development 27, no. 3 (1999): 551-569.
Udry, Christopher. “Gender, Agricultural Production and the Theory of the Household.” The Journal of Political Economy 104, no. 5 (1996): 1010-1016.
Udry, Christopher, John Hoddinott, Harold Alderman, and Lawrence Haddad. “Gender differentials in farm productivity: Implications for household efficiency and agricultural policy.” Food Policy 20, no. 5(1995): 407
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN-ESCAP). Economic and Social Survey of Asia and the Pacific 2007: Surging Ahead in Uncertain Times. Thailand: United Nations
World Bank. “Gender Equality as Smart Economics: A World Bank Group Gender Action Plan (Fiscal Years 10),” World Bank, siteresources.worldbank.org/INTGENDER/Resources/GAPNov2.pdf. World Bank. World Development Report 2006: Equity and Development. Washington, D.C. and New York
World Bank and Oxford University Press, 2005.
World Bank. Engendering Development Through Equality in Rights, Resources, and Voice. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Young, Alwyn. “The Tyranny of Numbers: Confronting the Statistical Realities of the East Asian Growth Experience.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 110, no. 3 (1995): 641-680.