Housewives or Working Women? Self-Perception of Home-Based Female Workers in Kayseri, Turkey in Times of Pandemic

Abstract Home-based work, which faded away at the beginning of the twentieth century, has become widespread again in parallel with the deepening economic crisis since the 1980s and is expected to become more prevalent with the addition of pandemic conditions to the process. It has become a source of livelihood for poor women in Kayseri as well, which they can carry out without overstepping the limits of gender roles deemed appropriate for them, but dialectically same process may bring up some positive effects. In this study, we tried to explore self-perception of home-based working women in one of the central districts of Kayseri, Kocasinan. Based on the findings of our field research we argue that even in the most conservative places where patriarchal values are more prevalent, home-based work can comparatively improve status of women in the household, increase their self-confidence and enhance their self-perception as well.

Housewives or Working Women? Self-Perception of Home-Based Female Workers in Kayseri, Turkey in Times of Pandemic

Abstract Home-based work, which faded away at the beginning of the twentieth century, has become widespread again in parallel with the deepening economic crisis since the 1980s and is expected to become more prevalent with the addition of pandemic conditions to the process. It has become a source of livelihood for poor women in Kayseri as well, which they can carry out without overstepping the limits of gender roles deemed appropriate for them, but dialectically same process may bring up some positive effects. In this study, we tried to explore self-perception of home-based working women in one of the central districts of Kayseri, Kocasinan. Based on the findings of our field research we argue that even in the most conservative places where patriarchal values are more prevalent, home-based work can comparatively improve status of women in the household, increase their self-confidence and enhance their self-perception as well.

___

  • Acar-Savran, G. (2003), “Kadınların Emeğini Görünür Kılmak: Marx’dan Delphy’ye bir ufuk Taraması”. Praksis (Issue 10) 159-210.
  • Ali, R. (2014), “Empowerment beyond Resistance: Cultural Ways of Negotiating Power Relations,” Women’s International Forum (Issue 45) 119-126.
  • Allen, S./Wolkowitz, C. (1987), Homeworking: Myths & Realities, (London: Macmillan Education).
  • Aşkın, E. Ö. /Aşkın, U. (2019), “İşgücü Piyasasında Enformel Kadın İşgücü: Ev Eksenli Çalışan Kadınlara Yönelik Bir Araştırma”. Manas Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi (Volume 8; Issue 1) 1003-1027.
  • Atasü-Topçuoğlu R. (2010), “Kapitalizm ve Ataerkillik Enformel Alanda Nasıl Eklemlenir? Bilinçli Saklama ve Saklayarak Değersizleştirme Mekanizmalarının Ev Eksenli Çalışmada İşleyişi”, Dedeoğlu, S. and Yaman Öztürk, M. (Eds.) Kapitalizm, Ataerkillik ve Kadin Emeği (İstanbul: SAV Sosyal Araştırmalar Vakfı Yayınları).
  • Ayata, S. (1987), Kapitalizm ve Küçük Üreticilik-Türkiye’de Halı Dokumacılığı, (Ankara: Yurt Yayınları, No.15).
  • Bahçe, S. A.K./Memiş, E. (2010), “İktisadi Krizler ve Kadının Karşılıksız Emeği”, İktisat (Issue 514) 35-41.
  • Balaban, U./Sarıoğlu, E. (2008), Home-Based Work in Istanbul: Varieties of Organization and Patriarchy, Social Policy Forum, Istanbul. Available at: https://spf.boun.edu.tr/sites/spf.boun.edu.tr/files/1439808024_hbw_in_istanbul_varieties_of_organization_and_patriarchy.pdf (Accessed 10 July 2023)
  • Beneria, L. (2001), “Shifting the Risk: New Employment Patterns, Informalization, and Women’s Work”, International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society (Volume 15, Issue 1) 27-53.
  • Beneria, L./Floro, M. (2005), “Distribution, Gender and Labor Market Informalization: A Conceptual Framework with a Focus on Homeworkers”. Kudva N and Beneria L (Eds.) Rethinking Informalization: Poverty, Precarious Jobs and Social Protection. (New York: Cornell University Open Access Repository) 9-27.
  • Berik, G. (1987), Women Carpet Weavers in Rural Turkey: Patterns of Employment, Earning and Status, (Geneva: International Labour Office, Women, work and development no. 15).
  • Bhaskar, R. (1989a) (1979), The Possibility of Naturalism: A Philosophical Critique of the Contemporary Human Sciences, (Brighton: Harvester Press). Bhaskar, R. (1989b), Reclaiming Reality A Critical Introduction to Contemporary Philosophy, (London: Verso). Bonnet, F./Vanek, J./Chen, M. (2019), “Women and Men in the Informal Economy: A Statistical Brief”. WIEGO. Available at: https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---travail/documents/publication/wcms_711798.pdf (Accessed 11 April 2022).
  • Boris, E./Daniels, C.R. (Eds) (1989), Homework: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on Paid Labor at Home, (Urbana: University of Illinois Press).
  • Bourdieu, P. (1992), The Logic of Practice (Cambridge: Polity Press) (Trans. Richard Nice).
  • Bourdieu, P. (1996), Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste (London: Routledge, Fifth Edition in English) (Trans. Richard Nice).
  • Bradshaw, J./Finch, N./Kemp, P./Mayhew, E./Williams, J. (2003), Gender and Poverty in Britain. (Manchester: Equal Opportunities Commission). Working Paper Series No. 6.
  • Breman, J. (2020), “Informality: The Bane of the Labouring Poor Under Globalised Capitalism”. Chen M and Carre F (Eds.) The Informal Economy Revisited: Examining the Past, Envisioning the Future. (London and New York: Routledge) 31-37.
  • Bromley, R./Wilson, T. D. (2018), “Introduction: The Urban Informal Economy Revisited.” Latin American Perspectives (Volume 45; Issue 1) 4-23.
  • Buğra, A. (2012), Türkiye’nin Değişen Refah Rejimi: Neoliberalizm, Kültürel Muhafazakârlık ve Yeniden Tanımlanan Toplumsal Dayanışma”. Dedeoğlu S and Elveren AY (Eds) Türkiye’de Refah Devleti ve Kadın. (Istanbul: İletişim) 47-69.
  • Burchielli, R./Buttigieg, D./Delaney, A. (2008), “Organizing Homeworkers: The Use of Mapping as an Organizing Tool”. Work, Employment and Society, (Volume 22; Issue: 1) 167–180.
  • Carr, M./Chen, M.A./Tate, J. (2000), “Globalization And Home-Based Workers”, Feminist Economics (Volume 6; Issue 3) 123–142.
  • Carre, F. (2020), “Informal Employment in Developed Countries: Relevance and Statistical Measurement” Chen M and Carre F (Eds) The Informal Economy Revisited: Examining the Past, Envisioning the Future. (London and New York: Routledge) 52-59.
  • Castells, M./Portes, A. (1991), “World Underneath: The Origins, Dynamics, and Effects of the Informal Economy”. Portes A, Castells M and Benton LB (Eds) The Informal Economy. (Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins University Press) 11-37.
  • Chen, M./Vanek, J./Carr, M. (2004), Mainstreaming Informal Employment and Gender in Poverty Reduction: A Handbook for Policymakers and Other Stakeholders. (London: Commonwealth Secretariat).
  • Chen, M. A. (2005), “Rethinking the Informal Economy: Linkages with the Formal Economy and the Formal Regulatory Environment”. (Research Paper, UNU-WIDER, No. 10), United Nations University (UNU).
  • Chen, M./Vanek J./Heintz, J. (2006), “Informality, Gender and Poverty: A Global Picture”. Economic and Political Weekly (Volume 41; Issue 21) 2131-2139.
  • Chen, M.A. (2012), The Informal Economy: Definitions, Theories and Policies. (WIEGO Working Paper No:1). Available at: https://www.wiego.org/sites/default/files/publications/files/Chen_WIEGO_WP1.pdf (Accessed 8 October 2022).
  • Chen, M./Carre, F. (2020), “Introduction”. Chen M and Carre F (Eds) The Informal Economy Revisited: Examining the Past, Envisioning the Future. (London and New York: Routledge) 1-28.
  • Çağatay, N./Berik, G. (1994), “What Has Export-Oriented Manufacturing Meant for Turkish Women?’ Sparr P. (Ed), Mortgaging Women’s Lives: Feminist Critiques of Structural Adjustment. (London and New Jersey: Zed Books) 78-95. Daniels, A. (1987), “Invisible Work”. Social Problems (Volume 34; Issue 5) 403–415.
  • Dasgupta, N./Lloyd-Jones, T. (2018), “Heterogeneity and Vulnerability in the Urban Informal Economy: Reworking the Problem in the Current Context. The Case of Uganda”. World Development Perspective (Volume 10; Issue 12) 64-72.
  • Dedeoğlu, S. (2021), Home bounded - Global Outreach: Home-Based Workers in Turkey. ILO (International Labour Organisation) Working Paper 21. Available at: https://www.ilo.org/global/publications/working-papers/WCMS_764768/lang--en/index.htm (Accessed 8 April 2022).
  • Delaney, A./Burchielli, R./Marshall, S./Tate, J. (2019), Homeworking Women: A Gender Justice Perspective. (London and New York: Routledge).
  • DİSK-AR (2021), Covid-19 Döneminde Kadın İşgücünün Durumu Raporu. (Türkiye Devrimci İşçi Sendikaları Konfederasyonu Research Center), March, Istanbul. Available at: http://arastirma.disk.org.tr/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/8-MART-2021-Kad%C4%B1n-%C4%B0%C5%9Fg%C3%BCc%C3%BCn%C3%BCn-Durumu-Raporu.pdf (Accessed 12 August 2022).
  • DİSK-AR (2022), İşsizlik ve İstihdamın Görünümü, 2021 Yıllık Rapor (Türkiye Devrimci İşçi Sendikaları Konfederasyonu Research Center), March, Istanbul. Available at: http://arastirma.disk.org.tr/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Mart-2022-Issizlik-ve-Istihdamin-Gorunumu-2021-Yillik.pdf (Accessed 8 April 2022).
  • DİSK - Genel İş (2020), Türkiye’de Kadın Emeği. (Türkiye Devrimci İşçi Sendikaları Konfederasyonu and Genel İş Sendikası, Emek araştırmaları), March. Ankara. Available at: http://cloudsdomain.com/uploads/dosya/21031.pdf). (Accessed 12 August 2022).
  • DİSK - Genel İş (2021) Covid-19 Sürecinde Türkiye'de Gelir Eşitsizliği ve Yoksulluk Raporu. (Türkiye Devrimci İşçi Sendikaları Konfederasyonu and Genel İş Sendikası, Emek Araştırmaları), January, Ankara. Available at: http://cloudsdomain.com/uploads/dosya/45380.pdf (Accessed 7 July 2022).
  • England, P./Budig, M./Folbre, N. (2002), “Wages of Virtue: The Relative Pay of Care Work”. Social Problems (Volume 49; Issue 4) 455–473.
  • Eraydın, A./Türkün-Erendil, A. (1999), “Yeni Üretim Biçimleri ve Kadın Emeği: Dış Pazara Açılan Konfeksiyon Sanayiinde Yeni Üretim Süreçleri ve Kadın İşgücünün Bu Sürece Katılım Biçimleri”. (Ankara: T.C. Kadının Statüsü ve Sorunları Genel Müdürlüğü-KSSGM).
  • Federici, S. (1975), Wages Against Housework. (Bristol: Power of Women Collective and Falling Wall Press).
  • Fortuna, J. C./Prates, S. (1991), “Informal Sector Versus Informalized Labor Relations in Uruguay”. Portes A, Castells M and Benton. L. B. (Eds) The Informal Economy. (Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins University Press) 78-94.
  • Fraser, Nancy. “How Feminism Became Capitalism’s Handmaiden – and How to Reclaim It,” The Guardian, 14 October 2013, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/oct/14/feminism-capitalist-handmaiden-neoliberal17.07.2023
  • Fröbel, F./Heinrichs, J./Kreye, O. (1980). The New International Division of Labour: Structural Unemployment in Industrialised Countries and Industrialisation in Developing Countries, (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press; Paris: Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme).
  • Gaugh, J./Eisenschitz, A./McCulloch, A. (2006), Spaces of Social Exclusion. (London and New York: Routledge).
  • Hartmann, H. I. (1979), “The Unhappy Marriage of Marxism and Feminism: Towards a More Progressive Union”. Capital & Class (Volume 12; Issue 2) 1–33.
  • Harvey, D. (1987), Flexible Accumulation Through Urbanization: Reflections on 'Post-Modernism' in the American City. Antipode (Volume 19) 260-286.
  • Harvey, D. (1992), The Condition of Post Modernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change. (Cambridge MA and Oxford UK: Blackwell Publishing).
  • Harvey, D. (1993), “Esneklik: Tehdit mi Yoksa Fırsat mı?” Toplum ve Bilim (Volume 56) 83-93.
  • Hattatoğlu, D. (2000), Evde Çalışan Kadınlar Arasında Dayanışma/Örgütlenme. Unpublished Phd. Thesis, (Istanbul: Mimar Sinan University Social Sciences Institute).
  • Hattatoğlu, D. (2010), “Yoksulluk, Kadın Yoksulluğu ve Bir Başa Çıkma Stratejisi Olarak Ev Eksenli Çalışma”, Yasemin Özdek (Ed.). Yoksulluk, Şiddet ve İnsan Hakları (Ankara: TODAİE) 303-316.
  • ILO (International Labour Organisation) (2003), Report of Seventeenth International Conference of Labour Statisticians. Available at: https://www.ilo.org/public/english/standards/relm/gb/docs/gb289/pdf/icls-17.pdf (Accessed 7 July 2022).
  • ILO (International Labour Organisation) (2020), The Effects of COVID-19 on Employment in Turkey. Available at: https://www.ilo.org/ankara/media-centre/multimedia/videos/WCMS_762258/lang--en/index.htm (Accessed 8 April 2022).
  • ILO (International Labour Organisation) (2021), Working From Home: From Invisibilty to Decent Work. Available at: https://reliefweb.int/report/world/working-home-invisibility-decent-work?gclid=Cj0KCQjwk96lBhDHARIsAEKO4xYJ4AmxOKyGlMkJCmhz4w1q6ZGwt9t-FQKNrRIYcbhD-Ejieen1gDEaAsu5EALw_wcB (Accessed 10. April 2023)
  • ILO (International Labour Organisation) Monitor (2021), COVID-19 and the World of Work. Seventh edition, (25 January). Available at: https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@dgreports/@dcomm/documents/briefingnote/wcms_767028.pdf (Accessed 8 July 2022).
  • Jarvis, H./Kantor, P./Cloke, J. (2009), Cities and Gender. (London and New York: Routledge).
  • Kandiyoti, D. (1997), Cariyeler Yurttaşlar Bacılar Kimlikler Ve Toplumsal Dönüşümler, (İstanbul: Metis Kadın Araştırmaları) (Trans. Aksu Bora et. al.).
  • Karadeniz, E. (2019), “Türkiye’de 2000 Sonrası Ev Eksenli Çalışma Üzerine Yapılmış Lisansüstü Tezlerin İncelemesi”, Unpublished Masters of Art Thesis, (Marmara University Social Sciences Institute, Department of Labour Economics and Industrial Relations).
  • Kocabaş, F./ Besler, S./Özgüler, V.C. (2017), “Ev Eksenli Çalışan Kadınlara Yönelik Niteliksel Bir Araştırma: Eskişehir El Sanatları Pazarı Örneği”. Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi (Volume 9; Issue 18) 178-201.
  • Kocabıçak, E. (2013), “The Relationship of Patriarchy and Capitalism: The ‘Win Win! Scenario Reconsidered”. Kadın Araştırmaları Dergisi (Volume 12; Issue 1) 193-214.
  • Kok, J. (2007). “Principles and prospects of the life course paradigm”. Annales de Démographie Historique, (Issue 113) 203–230
  • Kümbetoğlu, B. (1995), “Gizli İşçiler: Kadınlar ve Bir Alan Araştırması”, Kadın Araştırmalarında Yöntem, S. Çakır ve N. Akgökçe (Eds.), (İstanbul: Sel Yayıncılık) 230–238.
  • Laha, S. (2008), Rise of Informalisation in Global Capitalism: Exploring Formal-Informal Linkages and Environmental Sustainability. (Netherlands: Masters of Art in Development Studies Institute of Social Studies).
  • Levins, R. (2008). Dialectics and Systems Theory. Ollman B and Smith T (Eds) Dialectics for the New Century, (London: Palgrave Macmillan) 26-49.
  • Lipietz, A. (1982), “Towards global Fordism?” New Left Review (Volume 132) 33-47.
  • Lordoğlu, K. (1990), Eve İş Verme Sistemi İçinde Kadın İşgücü Üzerine Bir Alan Araştırması, (Istanbul: Friedrich Ebert Vakfı Yayınları).
  • Marcoux, A. (1998), “The Feminization of Poverty, Claims, Facts and Data Needs”. Population and Development Review (Volume 24; Issue 1) 131-139.
  • Massey, D. (1984), Spatial Divisions of Labour, Social Structures and the Geography of Production. (Hong Kong: Macmillian Education Ltd).
  • Mies, M. (1998), Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale: Women in the International Division of Labour, (London: Zed Books).
  • Mies, M. (2012), The Lace Makers of Narsapur: Indian Housewives Produce for the World Market. (Australia: Spinifex Press).
  • Mitter, S. (1986), “Industrial Restructuring and Manufacturing Homework: Immigrant Women in the UK Clothing Industry”. Capital & Class (Volume 27) 37-80. Moçoş, E. (2004), Gelenekselin Ev Eksenli Üretimin Yeniden Şekillenmesindeki Rolü: İstanbul, Pendik, Kavakpınar Örneği. Unpublished Masters of Art Thesis, (Istanbul: Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, Social Sciences Institute).
  • Munck, R. (2002), Globalization and Labour: The New ‘Great Transformation’, (London: Zed Books).
  • Munck, R./Pradella, L./Wilson T. D. (2020), “Introduction: Special Issue on Precarious and Informal Work”. Review of Radical Political Economics (Volume 52; Issue 3) 361–370.
  • Ollman, B. (1993), Dialectical Investigations. (New York: Routledge). Patel, S./Pandya, R. (2017), “Problems of Women in Unorganized Sector - A Study on Home Based Women Workers and Domestic Women Workers in Vadodara”, International Journal of Applied Home Science, (Volume 4; Isuue 7&8) 593-610.
  • Pearce, D. (1978), “The Feminization of Poverty: Women, Work and Welfare”. Urban & Social Change Review (Volume 11; Issue 1) 28-36.
  • Pearson, R. (2004), “Organizing Home-Based Workers in the Global Economy: An Action Research Approach.” Development in Action (Volume 14) 136–148.
  • Pearson, R. (2007), “Reassessing Paid Work and Women's Empowerment: Lessons from the global economy”, Andrea C, Elizabeth H and Ann W (Eds.) Feminisms in Development: Contradictions, Contestations and Challenges, (London/New York: Zed Books) 201-213
  • Peterson, V. S. (2010), “Informalization, Inequalities and Global Insecurities”. International Studies Review (Volume 12) 244–270.
  • Peterson V. S. (2018), “Intimacy, Informalization and Intersecting Inequalities: Tracing the Linkages”. Labour & Industry: A Journal of the Social and Economic Relations of Work, (Volume 28; Issue 2) 130-145.
  • Phizacklea, A./Wolkowitz, C. (1995), Homeworking Women: Gender, Racism and Class at Work. (London: Sage).
  • Piore, M./Sabel, C. (1984), The Second Industrial Divide. (New York: Basic Books).
  • Roberts, B. R. (1991), “Employment Structure, Life Cycle, and Life Chances: Formal and Informal Sectors in Guadalajara”. Portes A, Castells M and Benton. L. B. (Eds) The Informal Economy. (Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins University Pres) 41-59.
  • Sallan-Gül, S. (2005). “Türkiye’de Yoksulluğun Kadınsılaşması”. Amme İdaresi Dergisi (Volume 38; Issue 1) 25-45.
  • Standing, G. (1989), “Global Feminization Through Flexible Labor”. World Development (Volume 17; Issue 7) 1077-1095.
  • Standing, G. (1999), Global Labour Flexibility. (London: Macmillan).
  • Suzuki Him, M. (2020), “A Paradox of Women’s Employment and Empowerment in Flexible Capitalism,” Fe Dergi (Volume 12, Issue 1): 59-69.
  • Suzuki Him, M./Gündüz Hoşgör, A. (2017), “Feminisation of Rural Work and Young Women’s Dis/empowerment: A Case Study of Mountain Villages in the Western Black Sea Region of Turkey,” KADIN/WOMAN 2000 Journal for Women’s Studies (Volume 18, Issue 1) 1-22.
  • Tartanoğlu, S. (2017), ‘The Voluntary Precariat in the Value Chain: The Hidden Patterns of Home-based Garment Production in Turkey’, Competition and Change, (Volume 22, Issue 1) 23-40.
  • Tekbaş, H. D. (2019), Toplumsal Cinsiyet Olgusu ve Ev Eksenli Çalışma: Aksaray İlinde Bir Alan Araştırması. Unpublished Masters of Art Thesis, (Sivas Cumhuriyet University Social Sciences Institute, Department of Labour Economics and Industrial Relations).
  • Tezcek, F. Ö./Polat, Ö. (2016), “Ev-İçindeki Fabrikanın İşçileri”. Fe Dergi (Volume 8; Issue 1) 50-68.
  • Toksöz, G. /Özşuca, Ş. (2002), “Enformel Sektörde İstihdamın ve İşgücünün Özellikleri” İktisat Dergisi (Issue 430) 29-35.
  • Tomaskovic-Devey, D. (2014), “The Relational Generation of Workplace Inequalities”. Social Currents (Volume 1; Issue 1) 51-73.
  • UN (United Nations) Women (2020), Türkiye’de COVID-19 Etkilerinin Toplumsal Cinsiyet Açısından Değerlendirilmesi. Available at: https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/73989_rgaexecutivesummaryturkish.pdf (Accessed 3 July 2022).
  • Wallerstein, I. (2000), The Essential Wallerstein. (New York: The New Press).
  • White, J. (1994), Money Makes us Relatives: Women’s Labor in Urban Turkey.( Austin: University of Texas).
  • Williams, C. C. (2007), “The Nature of Entrepreneurship in the Informal Sector: Evidence from England”. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship (Volume 12; Issue 2) 239–254.
  • Williams, C. C./Horodnic L. A. (2015), “Self-employment, the Informal Economy and the Marginalisation Thesis: Some Evidence from the European Union”. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research (Volume 21; 2) 224 - 242.
  • Yaman-Öztürk, M./S. Dedeoğlu (2010), “Giriş: Kapitalizm ve Ataerki İlişkisi Çerçevesinde Kadın Emeği”, Dedeoğlu, S. and Yaman Öztürk, M. (Eds.) Kapitalizm, Ataerkillik ve Kadin Emeği (İstanbul: SAV Sosyal Araştırmalar Vakfı Yayınları) 11-25.
  • Young, I. (1981), “Beyond the Unhappy Marriage: A Critique of the Dual Systems Theory”. Sargent L (Ed) Women and Revolution: A Discussion of the Unhappy Marriage of Marxism and Feminism. (Boston: South End Press) 43-71.