Psikolojik Danışma Sürecinin Gözleminde Yöntemsel Farklılıklar

Öz Psikolojik danışma bir etkileşim sürecidir; bu süreçte danışman ile danışanın iletileri karşılıklı bağımlılık göstermektedir. Danışma esnasındaki danışan ve danışman davranışlarının ne şekilde inceleneceği araştırmanın amaçlarına ve sınırlılığına bağlı olarak farklılaşmaktadır; bununla birlikte yöntemsel tercihler farklı araştırma bulgularına ulaşılmasına neden olmaktadır. Danışma sürecini inceleme konusu yapan araştırmalarda kullanılan yöntemlerin heterojen olması araştırma bulgularının bütünleştirilmesini güçleştirmektedir. Farklı kategori (gözlem) sistemleri, araştırma odakları (danışman, danışan ve etkileşim) ve perspektifler (danışman, danışan, bağımsız bir gözlemci) araştırma sonuçları üzerinde etkili olmaktadır. Ayrıca nelerin ve hangi oturumlardaki davranışların gözlemleneceği, gözlem biriminin (zamansal, dilbilgisel, anlamsal) ne olacağı, davranışların ne şekilde kodlanacağı (açık veya örtük içerik) ve son olarak analiz birimi (tematik, özneler arası ilişki, dil dışı kategoriler) bu konuda yapılan çalışmaları farklılaştırmaktadır. Bu çalışmanın amacı, danışan ile danışman davranışlarının ve aralarındaki etkileşimin gözleminde ne gibi yöntemsel tercihlerin olabileceği ile ilgili eğilimleri ve tartışmaları incelemektir.

___

  • Audeta, C.T. and Everall, R.D. (2010). Therapist self-disclosure and the therapeutic relationship: a phenomenological study from the client perspective. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling Vol. 38, No. 3, 327-342. Bänninger-Huber, E. (2001). Von der Erfolgsforschung zur Prozeßforschung – und wieder zurück? Zum aktuellen Stand der Psychotherapieforschung im deutschsprachigen Raum. Psychotherapeut, 46, 348-352. Bastine, R. (1988). Psychotherapeutische Prozesse - von der Verlegenheit, psychotherapeutische Veränderungen zu erklären. Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie, Psychopathologie und Psychotherapie, 36, 296-307. Bastine, R., Fiedler, P. & Kommer, D. (1989). Was ist therapeutisch an der Psychotherapie? Versuch einer Bestandsaufnahme und systematisierung der Psychotherapeutischen Prozeßforschung. Zeitschrift für klinische Psychologie, 18, 3-22. Beck, M., Friedlander, M. L. & Escudero, V. (2006) Three perspectives on clients’ experiences of the therapeutic alliance: a discovery-oriented investigation. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 32: 355–368. Brandl, T. (2005). Erkenntnisgewinn In Der Psychotherapie-Prozessforschung Mit Einer Sequenz Von Einzelfallanalysen. Demonstriert An Einem Vergleich Von Zwei Psychoanalysen, Drei Tiefenpsychologisch Fundierten Psychotherapien Und Zwei Kognitiven Verhaltenstherapien Inaugural-Dissertation in der Fakultät Pädagogik, Philosophie, Psychologie der Otto-Friedrich-Universität Bamberg. Chamberlain, P., Patterson, G., Reid, J., Kavanagh, K. & Forgatch, M. (1984). Observation of client resistance. Behavior Therapy, 15, 144-155. Connolly MB, Crits-Christoph P, Shappell S, Barber JP & Luborsky L. (1998). Therapist interventions in early sessions of brief supportive-expressive psychotherapy for depression. J. Psychother. Pract. Res. 7:290–300. Corey, G. (2008). Psikolojik Danışma Kuram ve Uygulamaları (Çev. T.Ergene). Ankara: Mentis Yayıncılık. Dilcher K. (2002). Klinisch-Psychologische Forschung im stationären Setting. In: Jacobi F. & Poldrack A. (Hrsg.): Wissenschaftliches Arbeiten in der Klinischen Psychologie (pp. 89-106). Göttingen: Hogrefe. Eckert, J. (1996). Schulübergreifende Aspekte der Psychotherapie. In C. Reimer, C., J. Eckert, M.Hautzinger & E. Wilke (Hrsg.): Psychotherapie (pp. 324-339). Berlin: Springer. Elliott, R. (1984). A discovery-oriented approach to significant events in psychotherapy: Interpersonal process recall and comprehensive process analysis. In L. Rice & L. Greenberg (Eds.), Patterns of change (pp. 249-286). New York: Guilford Press. Elliott, R., Hill, C., Stiles, W.B., Friedlander, M.L., Mahrer, A.R. & Margison, F.R. (1987). Primary therapist response modes: Comparison of six rating systems. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 218-223. Elliot, R. (1991). Five dimensions of therapy process. Psychotherapy Research, 1(2), 92-103. Elliott, R. (1998). A guide to the empirically supported treatments controversy. Psychotherapy Research. 8 (2), 115-125. Evans, M., Piasecki, J., Kriss, M., & Hollon, S. (1984). Rater’s manual for the Collaborative Study Psychotherapy Rating Scale. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota. Frank, G. H., & Sweetland, A. A. (1962). A study of the process of psychotherapy: The verbal interaction. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 26, 135-138. Friedlander, M.L. (1982). Counseling discourse as a speech event: Revision and extension of the Hill Counsellor Verbal Response Category System. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 29, 425–429. Friedlander, M.L, Ellis, M.V., Siegel, S.M, Raymond, L., Haase, R.F. & Highlen, P.S. (1988). Generalizing from segments to sessions: Should it be done? Journal of Counseling Psychology, 29, 425-429. Goldberg, D.P., Hobson, R.F., Maguire, G.P., Margison, F.R., O’Dowd, T., Osborn, M.S. & Moss, S., (1984). The clarification and assessment of a method of psychotherapy. Br. J. Psychiatry, 114, 567–575. Gottschalk LA, Lolas F & Viney LL (1986). Content analysis and verbal behavior. Significance in clinical medicine and psychiatry. Springer, Berlin. Grawe, K. (1995). Welchen Sinn hat Psychotherapieforschung? Eine Erwiderung auf Tschuschke et al. Psychotherapeut, 40, 96-106. Grawe, K., Caspar, F., & Ambühl, H.R. (1990). Differentielle Psychotherapieforschung: Vier Therapieformen im Vergleich: Die Berner Therapievergleichsstudie. Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie, 19(4), 294-376. Greenberg, L. (1986). Change process research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54,4-9. Hahlweg, K., Reisner, L., Kohli, G., Vollmer, M., Schindler,L., & Revenstorf, D.(1984). Development and validity of a new system to analyze interpersonal: Kategoriensystem fur partnerschaftliche interaktion (pp. 182–198). In K. Hahlweg & N. S. Jacobson (Eds.) Marital interaction: Analysis and modification. New York: Guilford Press. Hartmann, A. & Herzog, T. (1995). Varianten der Effektstärkenberechnung in Meta-Analysen: Kommt es zu variablen Ergebnissen? Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie, 24 (4), 337-343 Hill, C.E. (1978). Development of a counselor verbal response category system. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 25, 461-468. Hill, Siegelman, Gronsky, Sturniolo ve Fretz (1981). Nonverbal communication and counseling outcome. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 28, 203-212. Hill, C.E. (1982). Counseling process research: Philosophical and methodological dilemmas. The Counseling Psychologist, 30, 3-18. Hill, C. E. (1990). Exploratory in-session process research in individual psychotherapy: A review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 58, 288-294. Hill, C. E., O`Grady, K. E. & Elkin, I. (1992). Applying the collaborative study psychotherapy rating scale to rate adherence in cognitive behavioral thearpy, interpersonal therapy, and clinical management. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 73-79. Hill, C. E., Knox, S., Thompson, B. J., Williams, E. N., Hess, S. A., & Ladany, N. (2005). Consensual qualitative research: An update. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 196–205. Huf, A. (1992). Psychotherapeutische Wirkfaktoren. Weinheim: Psychologie-Verlag-Union. Jacobson, N. S. & Christensen, A. (1996). Studying the effectiveness of psychotherapy: How well can clinical trials do the job? American Psychologist, 51, 1031-1039. Jones, E.E., Cumming, J.D & Pulos, S.M. (1993). Tracing Clinical Themes across Phases of Treatment by a Q-Set. In N.E. Miller, L. Luborsky, J.P. Barber & J.P. Docherty (Eds.), Psychodynamic Treatment Research. A Handbook for Clinical Practice (pp. 14 -36). New York: Basic Books. Kanfer, F.H. & Grimm, L.G. (1980). Managing clinical change. A process model of therapy. Behavior Modification, 4, 419-444. Kanfer, F.H. & Schefft, B.K. (1988). Guiding the process of therapeutic change. Champaign: Research Pres. Kiesler, D.J. (1982). Confronting the client-therapist relationship in psychotherapy. In Anchin, J.C. & Kiesler, D.J. (eds.), Handbook of interpersonal psychotherapy. New York: Pergamon. Lambert, M. J. (1991). Introduction to psychotherapy research. In M. Cargo (Ed.), Psychotherapy research (pp. 1-11). Washington DC: APA. Lambert, M. J. & Hill, C. E. (1994). Assessing psychotherapy outcomes and processes. In S. L. Garfield (Ed.), Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (4. ed., pp. 72-113). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Luborsky, L., Barber, J. P., & Crits-Christoph, P. (1990). Theory-Based Research for Understanding the Process of Dynamic Psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 58(3), 281-287. Lutz, W. Martinovich, Z., & Howard, K.I. (2001). Vorhersage individueller Psychotherapieverläufe. Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie und Psychotherapie, 30, 104-113. Mahrer, A.R., Nifakis, D.J., Abhjkara, L. & Sterner, I. (1984). Microstrategies in psychotherapy: The patterning of sequential therapist statements. Psychotherapy, 21, 465-472. Mahrer, A. R., Nadler, W. P., Stalikas, A., & Schachter, H. M. (1988). Common and distinctive therapeutic change processes in client-centered, rational-emotive, and experiential psychotherapies. Psychological Reports, 62, 972-974. Märtens, M. & Petzold, H.G. (1998). Wer und was wirkt wie in der Psychotherapie? Mythos "Wirkfaktoren" oder hilfreiches Konstrukt? Integrative Therapie 1, 98-110. Meier, A. & Boivin, M. (1986). Client verbal response category system: Preliminary data. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54, 877-879. Michalak, J., Kosfelder, J., Meyer, F. & Schulte, D. (2003). Messung des Therapieerfolgs – Veränderungsmessung oder retrospektive Erfolgsbeurteilung. Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie und Psychotherapie, 32, 94-103. Plath, I. (1998). Die Untersuchung von Grawe, Donati & Bernauer (1994) aus forschungsintegrativer Sicht. Eine methodenkritische Analyse. Report Psychologie, 23 (9), 730-749. Reinecker, H. (1984). Prozeßtheorien: Verhaltensorientierte Modelle. In U. Baumann (Ed.), Psychotherapie: Makro-/Mikroperspektive (pp. 159-176). Göttingen: Verlag für Psychologie. Russell, R. L. (1988). A new classification scheme for studies of verbal behavior in psychotherapy. Psychotherapy, 25, 51-58. Russell, R. L. & Stiles, W. B. (1979). Categories for classifying language in psychotherapy. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 404-419. Sanberk İ. (2010). Psikolojik Danışman – Danışan İlişkisinin Çözümlenmesi ve Bazı Süreç, Sonuç Değişkenleri Açısından İncelenmesi. Çukurova Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Adana. Sandweg, R., Sänger-Alt, C. & Rudolf, G. (1991). Erfolge in der stationären Psychotherapie. Ergebnisse eines Katamneseprojektes in einer Fachklinik für psychogene Erkrankungen. Das öffentliche Gesundheitswesen, 53(12), 801-809. Schiepek, G. (1994). Ist eine systemische Psychotherapieforschung möglich? Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie, Psychopathologie und Psychotherapie, 42, 297-318. Schindler, L. (1989). Das Codiersystem zur Interaktion in der Psychotherapie (CIP): Ein Instrument zur systematischen Beobachtung des Verhaltens von Therapeut und Klient im Therapieverlauf. Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie, 18, 68-79. Schindler, L., Hohenberger-Sieberer, E. & Hahlweg, K. (1989). Observing client-therapist interaction in behaviour therapy: Development and first application of an observational system. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 28, 213-226. Schindler, L. (1991). Die empirische Analyse der therapeutischen Beziehung. Berlin: Springer Verlag. Schindler, L. (1996). Prozeßforschung. In: A. Ehlers & K. Hahlweg: Grundlagen der Klinischen Psychologie (269-298). Göttingen: Hogrefe. Schulte, D. (1995). Therapieplanung. Göttingen: Hogrefe. Shaikh, A., Knobloch, L. M., & Stiles, W. B. (2001). The use of a verbal response mode coding system in determining patient and physician roles in medical interviews. Health Communication, 13, 49-60. Shoham-Salomon, V. (1990). Interrelating research process of process research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 58, 295-303. Snyder, (1945). An investigation of the nature of non-directive psychotherapy. The Journal of General Psychology, 33, 193-223. Soldz, S., Budman, S. H. & Demby, A. (1992). The relationship between main actor behaviors and treatment outcome in group psychotherapy. Psychotherapy Research, 2, 52-62. Stevens, S. E., Hynan, M. T. & Allen, M. (2000). A meta-analysis of common factor and specific treatment effects across the outcome domains of the phase model of psychotherapy. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 7, 273-290. Startup, M. & Shapiro, D. A. (1993). Therapist treatment fidelity in prescreptive vs. exploratory psychotherapy. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 32, 443-456. Stiles, W.B. (1996). Development of a taxonomy of verbal response modes. In. L.S.Greenberg & Pinsof (Eds.), The psychotherapy process: A research handbook (pp.161-199). New York: Guilford. Stiles, W.B. (1992). Describing Talk: a Taxonomy of Verbal Response Modes. Linguistics and Education, 6 (1). pp. 91-98. Stiles, W.B., Startup, M., Hardy, G. E., Barkham, M. & Reynolds, S. (1996). Therapist session intentions in cognitive-behavioral and psychodynamic-interpersonal psychotherapy. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43(4), 404-414. Strupp , H.H. (1957). A multidimensional system for analyzing psychotherapeutic techniques. Psychiatry, 20, 293-312. Strupp, H.H. (1994). Psychotherapy research and practice: An overview. In Garfield, S. L. & Bergin, A. E. (eds.). Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (4th ed., pp. 3-18). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Trijsburg, R., Lietaer, G., Colijn, S., Abrahamse, R., Joosten, S., Duivenvoorden, H. (2004). Construct validity of the Comprehensive Psychotherapeutic Interventions Rating Scale (CPIRS). Psychotherapy research, 14, 346-366. Valdés N, Dagnino P, Krause M, Pérez JC, Altimir C, Tomicic A. & de la Parra G. (2010). Analysis of verbalized emotions in the psychotherapeutic dialogue during change episodes. Psychother Res.; 20(2):136-50. Wampold, B. E. (1992). The intensive examination of social interaction. In J. R. Levin (Ed.), Single-case research design and analysis (pp. 93-131). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum. Watzke, B., Koch, U., Schulz, H. (2006) Zur theoretischen und empirischen Unterschiedlichkeit von therapeutischen Interventionen, Inhalten und Stilen in psychoanalytisch und verhaltenstherapeutisch begründeten Psychotherapien. Psychotherapie Psychosomatik Medizinische Psychologie, 56, 234-248. Weinberger, J. (1995). Common Factors Aren’t So Common: The Common Factors Dilemma. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 2: 45-69. Wiser, S., & Goldfried, M.R. (1996). Verbal interventions insignificant psychodynamic-interpersonal and cognitivebehavioral therapy sessions. Psychotherapy Research, 6,309–319. Wittmann, L. (1990). Therapeutische Konzepte, Basisvariablen der Konversation und Forschungsmethoden. In D. Czogalik (Ed.), Psychotherapie - Welche Effekte verändern? (pp. 222-239). Berlin: Springer Verlag.