Observing the Water Quality in the Vicinity of Green Ports Located in the Marmara Sea, Turkey

Detection of biological, physical and chemical parameters is needed for the determination of water quality. Some of these water quality parameters such as turbidity, chlorophyll-a, harmful algae, suspended sediment, submerged habitat and temperature, can be derived directly via the satellite remote sensing facilities, particularly through the ocean color sensors. The competitiveness of satellite remote sensing comes from its capability of extensive geographical range and temporal coverage. Thus, changes and trends in water quality can be monitored and assessed to a greater degree, especially under the dynamic conditions of coastal zones. This study focuses on the water quality parameters in the vicinity of Green Ports of Turkey located in the Marmara Sea. There are 12 certified Green Ports in Turkey, located mostly in the Marmara Sea. Marmara Sea is a semi-enclosed inland sea and a passageway, which connects the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. There are 7 cities surrounding the Marmara Sea, representing the different anthropogenic aspects of civilization: Population, industry and agriculture. These aspects affect the water quality of the coastal zones in the Marmara Sea in different scales. Briefly, the aim of this study is to monitor and assess the impact of the Green Ports in the Marmara Sea region, in terms of water quality parameters detected via the Earth Observation System. Consequently, it is concluded that remote sensing capabilities of the contemporary Earth Observation Systems provide reliable results of water quality parameters when coupled with the field measurements in order to use in further decision-making mechanisms.

PDF

___

Akgul, B. (2017). Green Port / Eco Port Project-Applications and Procedures in Turkey. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 95(4). https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/95/4/042063

Alparslan, E., Aydöner, C., Tufekci, V., & Tüfekci, H. (2007). Water quality assessment at Ömerli Dam using remote sensing techniques. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 135(1–3), 391–398. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-007-9658-6

Alparslan, E., Coskun, H. G., & Alganci, U. (2009). Water quality determination of Küçükçekmece Lake, Turkey by using multispectral satellite data. TheScientificWorldJournal, 9, 1215–1229. https://doi.org/10.1100/tsw.2009.135

Bengil, F., & Mavruk, S. (2018). Bio-optical trends of seas around Turkey: An assessment of the spatial and temporal variability. Oceanologia, 60(4), 488–499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceano.2018.03.004

Beşiktepe, Ş. T., Sur, H. I. do., Özsoy, E., Latif, M. A., Oǧuz, T., & Ünlüata, Ü. (1994). The circulation and hydrography of the Marmara Sea. Progress in Oceanography, 34(4), 285–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/0079-6611(94)90018-3

Blix, K., Pálffy, K., Tóth, V. R., & Eltoft, T. (2018). Remote sensing of water quality parameters over Lake Balaton by using Sentinel-3 OLCI. Water (Switzerland), 10(10). https://doi.org/10.3390/w10101428

Brando, V. E., & Dekker, A. G. (2003). Satellite hyperspectral remote sensing for estimating estuarine and coastal water quality. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 41(6 PART I), 1378– 1387. https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2003.812907

Brezonik, P. L., Olmanson, L. G., Finlay, J. C., & Bauer, M. E. (2015). Factors affecting the measurement of CDOM by remote sensing of optically complex inland waters. Remote Sensing of Environment, 157, 199–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2014.04.033

Brockmann, C., Roland, Peters, M., Kerstin, Sabine, & Ruescas, A. (2016). Evolution of the C2RCC Neural Network for Sentinel 2 and 3 for the Retrieval of Ocean Colour Products in Normal and Extreme Optically Complex Waters.

Carvalho, L., Mackay, E. B., Cardoso, A. C., Baattrup-Pedersen, A., Birk, S., Blackstock, K. L., … Solheim, A. L. (2019). Protecting and restoring Europe’s waters: An analysis of the future development needs of the Water Framework Directive. Science of the Total Environment, 658, 1228–1238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.12.255

Colella, S., Falcini, F., Rinaldi, E., Sammartino, M., & Santoleri, R. (2016). Mediterranean ocean colour chlorophyll trends. PLoS ONE, 11(6), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0155756

ÇŞB - ÇEDİDGM. (2018). Marine Quality Bulletin - Marmara Sea. Retrieved from https://webdosya.csb.gov.tr/db/ced/icerikler/mar-ne-qual-ty-bullet-n-2018_marmara-sea20180319074908.pdf

Del Castillo, C. E., Gilbes, F., Coble, P. G., & Müller-Karger, F. E. (2000). On the dispersal of riverine colored dissolved organic matter over the West Florida Shelf. Limnology and Oceanography, 45(6), 1425–1432. https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.2000.45.6.1425

Del Castillo, C. E., & Miller, R. L. (2008). On the use of ocean color remote sensing to measure the transport of dissolved organic carbon by the Mississippi River Plume. Remote Sensing of Environment, 112(3), 836–844. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2007.06.015

Doerffer, R., & Schiller, H. (2007). The MERIS case 2 water algorithm. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 28(3–4), 517–535. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160600821127

Donlon, C., Berruti, B., Buongiorno, A., Ferreira, M. H., Féménias, P., Frerick, J., … Sciarra, R. (2012). The Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES) Sentinel-3 mission. Remote Sensing of Environment, 120(2012), 37–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2011.07.024

Doxaran, D., Froidefond, J.-M., Lavender, S., & Castaing, P. (2002). Spectral signature of highly turbid waters. Remote Sensing of Environment, 81(1), 149–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0034- 4257(01)00341-8

Ekercin, S. (2007). Water quality retrievals from high resolution ikonos multispectral imagery: A case study in Istanbul, Turkey. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 183(1–4), 239–251. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-007-9373-5

Feng, L., Hu, C., Chen, X., & Song, Q. (2014). Influence of the Three Gorges Dam on total suspended matters in the Yangtze Estuary and its adjacent coastal waters: Observations from MODIS. Remote Sensing of Environment, 140, 779–788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2013.10.002

Ferrari, G. M., Hoepffner, N., & Mingazzin, M. (1996). Optical properties of the water in a Deltaic environment: Prospectivetool to analyze satellite data in turbid waters. Remote Sensing of Environment, 58(1), 69–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-4257(96)00058-2

Gholizadeh, M., Melesse, A., & Reddi, L. (2016). A Comprehensive Review on Water Quality Parameters Estimation Using Remote Sensing Techniques. Sensors, 16(8), 1298. https://doi.org/10.3390/s16081298

Giardino, C., Bresciani, M., Cazzaniga, I., Schenk, K., Rieger, P., Braga, F., Brando, V. E. (2014). Evaluation of multi-resolution satellite sensors for assessing water quality and bottom depth of Lake Garda. Sensors (Switzerland), 14(12), 24116–24131. https://doi.org/10.3390/s141224116

Gitelson, A. A., Dall’Olmo, G., Moses, W., Rundquist, D. C., Barrow, T., Fisher, T. R., Holz, J. (2008). A simple semi-analytical model for remote estimation of chlorophyll-a in turbid waters: Validation. Remote Sensing of Environment, 112(9), 3582–3593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2008.04.015

Hadjimitsis, D. G., & Clayton, C. (2009). Assessment of temporal variations of water quality in inland water bodies using atmospheric corrected satellite remotely sensed image data. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 159(1–4), 281–292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-008-0629-3

Han, L., & Jordan, K. J. (2005). Estimating and mapping chlorophyll-a concentration in Pensacola Bay, Florida using Landsat ETM + data. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 26(23), 5245–5254. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160500219182

Hellweger, F. L., Schlosser, P., Lall, U., & Weissel, J. K. (2004). Use of satellite imagery for water quality studies in New York Harbor. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 61(3), 437–448. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2004.06.019

Hoogenboom, H. J., Dekker, A. G., & Althuis, I. A. (1998). Simulation of AVIRIS sensitivity for detecting chlorophyll over coastal and inland waters. Remote Sensing of Environment, 65(3), 333–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0034-4257(98)00042-X

Koponen, S., Pulliainen, J., Kallio, K., & Hallikainen, M. (2002). Lake water quality classification with airborne hyperspectral spectrometer and simulated MERIS data. Remote Sensing of Environment, 79(1), 51–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0034-4257(01)00238-3

Kratzer, S., & Moore, G. (2018). Inherent optical properties of the Baltic Sea in comparison to other seas and oceans. Remote Sensing, 10(3), 418. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10030418

Madsen, J. D., Chambers, P. A., James, W. F., Koch, E. W., & Westlake, D. F. (2001). Modelling Sediment Resuspension, Water Quality and Submersed Aquatic Vegetation. In Hydrobiologia (Vol. 444).

Mannino, A., Russ, M. E., & Hooker, S. B. (2008). Algorithm development and validation for satellitederived distributions of DOC and CDOM in the U.S. Middle Atlantic Bight. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 113(7), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JC004493

Morel, A., & Prieur, L. (1977). Analysis of variations in ocean color. Limnology and Oceanography, 22(4), 709–722. https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.1977.22.4.0709

Myint, S. W., & Walker, N. D. (2002). Quantification of surface suspended sediments along a river dominated coast with NOAA AVHRR and Sea WiFS measurements: Louisiana, USA. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 23(16), 3229–3249. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160110104700

Nechad, B., Ruddick, K. G., & Park, Y. (2010). Calibration and validation of a generic multisensor algorithm for mapping of total suspended matter in turbid waters. Remote Sensing of Environment, 114(4), 854– 866. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2009.11.022

Oguz, T., & Gilbert, D. (2007). Abrupt transitions of the top-down controlled Black Sea pelagic ecosystem during 1960-2000: Evidence for regime-shifts under strong fishery exploitation and nutrient enrichment modulated by climate-induced variations. Deep-Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers, 54(2), 220–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2006.09.010

Pavlic, B., Cepak, F., Sucic, B., Peckaj, M., & Kandus, B. (2014). Sustainable Port Infrastructure, Practical Implementation of the. Thermal Science, 18(3), 935–948. https://doi.org/10.2289/TSCI1403935P

Petus, C., Waterhouse, J., Lewis, S., Vacher, M., Tracey, D., & Devlin, M. (2019). A flood of information: Using Sentinel-3 water colour products to assure continuity in the monitoring of water quality trends in the Great Barrier Reef (Australia). Journal of Environmental Management, 248(July), 109255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.07.026

Ritchie, J. C., Zimba, P. V, & Everitt, J. H. (2003). Remote Sensing Techniques to Assess Water Quality / Técnicas de teledetección para evaluar la calidad del agua. Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing, 69(6), 695–704. https://doi.org/10.14358/PERS.69.6.695

Schlichter, D., Kampmann, H., & Conrady, S. (1997). Trophic potential and photoecology of endolithic algae living within coral skeletons. Marine Ecology, 18(4), 299–317. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439- 0485.1997.tb00444.x

Seyhan, E., & Dekker, A. (1986). Application of remote sensing techniques for water quality monitoring. Hydrobiological Bulletin, 20(1–2), 41–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02291149

Spencer, R. G. M., Ahad, J. M. E., Baker, A., Cowie, G. L., Ganeshram, R., Upstill-Goddard, R. C., & Uher, G. (2007). The estuarine mixing behaviour of peatland derived dissolved organic carbon and its relationship to chromophoric dissolved organic matter in two North Sea estuaries (U.K.). Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 74(1–2), 131–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2007.03.032

Stedmon, C. A., Markager, S., Søndergaard, M., Vang, T., Laubel, A., Borch, N. H., & Windelin, A. (2006). Dissolved Organic Matter (DOM) export to a temperate estuary: Seasonal variations and implications of land use. Estuaries and Coasts, 29(3), 388–400. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02784988

Toming, K., Kutser, T., Tuvikene, L., Viik, M., & Nõges, T. (2016). Dissolved organic carbon and its potential predictors in eutrophic lakes. Water Research, 102, 32–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2016.06.012

Usali, N., & Ismail, M. H. (2010). Use of Remote Sensing and GIS in Monitoring Water Quality. Journal of Sustainable Development, 3(3). https://doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v3n3p228

van der Woerd, H. J., & Wernand, M. R. (2015). True colour classification of natural waters with mediumspectral resolution satellites: SeaWiFS, MODIS, MERIS and OLCI. Sensors (Switzerland), 15(10), 25663–25680. https://doi.org/10.3390/s151025663

Vignudelli, S., Santinelli, C., Murru, E., Nannicini, L., & Seritti, A. (2004). Distributions of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM) in coastal waters of the northern Tyrrhenian Sea (Italy). Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 60(1), 133–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2003.11.023

Wang, X., Ling, F., Yao, H., Liu, Y., & Xu, S. (2019). Unsupervised Sub-pixel water body mapping with sentinel-3 OLCI image. Remote Sensing, 11(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11030327

Wass, P. D., Marks, S. D., Finch, J. W., Leeks, G. J. L., & Ingram, J. K. (1997). Monitoring and preliminary interpretation of in-river turbidity and remote sensed imagery for suspended sediment transport studies in the Humber catchment. Science of the Total Environment, 194–195(96), 263–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(96)05370-3

Werdell, P. J., & Bailey, S. W. (2005). An improved in-situ bio-optical data set for ocean color algorithm development and satellite data product validation. Remote Sensing of Environment, 98(1), 122–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2005.07.001

Yalçın, B., Artüz, M. L., Pavlidou, A., Çubuk, S., & Dassenakis, M. (2017). Nutrient dynamics and eutrophication in the Sea of Marmara: Data from recent oceanographic research. Science of the Total Environment, 601–602, 405–424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.05.179

Yu, Q., Tian, Y. Q., Chen, R. F., Liu, A., Gardner, G. B., & Zhu, W. (2010). Functional linear analysis of in situ hyperspectral data for assessing CDOM in rivers. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 76(10), 1147–1158. https://doi.org/10.14358/PERS.76.10.1147

Zeri, C., Beşiktepe, Ş., Giannakourou, A., Krasakopoulou, E., Tzortziou, M., Tsoliakos, D., … Papathanassiou, E. (2014). Chemical properties and fluorescence of DOM in relation to biodegradation in the interconnected Marmara-North Aegean Seas during August 2008. Journal of Marine Systems, 135, 124–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2013.11.019