Turizm, Terörizm ve Siyasi İstikrarsızlık

Terörizm, siyasi kargaşa ve savaş kavramları, turizmle alakasız görünse de bu olguların kesişme noktalarının ve turizme etkilerinin yakından incelenmesi, böyle olmadığını göstermektedir. Bu makale, bu olgular arasındaki ilişkileri irdeleyen alanyazın üzerinde durmaktadır Mevcut çalışmalardan elde edilen araştırma konuları, terörizm ve siyasi istikrarsızlığın turistik talep üzerindeki etkilerini, teröristlerin turistleri hedef alma sebeplerini, turizmin siyasi bir araç olarak kullanılmasını, siyasi şiddetin destinasyon imajı üzerindeki etkilerini, kriz yönetimini ve pazarı iyileştirme çabalarını içermektedir. Bu makalenin amacı, bu ilişkiler üzerine bir sentez oluşturmak, ilgili yayınların kapsamlı bir listesini sunmak ve sonraki araştırmalar için başlıklar önermektir

Tourism, Terrorism, and Political Instability

Concepts of terrorism, political turmoil, and war appear unrelated to tourism. Closer examination of their points of convergence and impacts on tourism reveals otherwise. This paper examines literature focusing on the relationships between these phenomena. Research themes which emerge from available studies include impacts of terrorism and political instability on tourist demand, motives of terrorists in targeting tourists, using tourism as a political tool, the effects of political violence on destination image, crisis management, and recovery marketing efforts. The intent of this article is to synthesize research on these relationships, to present a comprehensive index of relevant publications, and to suggest topics for future research

___

  • Abu Fadil M. (1992). Special Feature: The Terrorists won’t Go Away, The Middle East, 217: 15-18.
  • Atkinson S. E., Sandier T. ve Tschirhart J. (1987). Terrorism in a Bargaining Framework, The Journal of Law and Economics, 30 (1): 1-21.
  • Aziz H. (1995). Understanding Terrorist Attacks on Tourists in Egypt, Tourism Management, 16 (2): 91-95.
  • Bach S. A. (1996). Tourist-Related Crime and the Hotel Industry: A Review of the Literature and Related Materials. İçinde: A. Pizam ve Y. Mansfeld (Editörler) Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues (ss. 281-296). New York: Wiley.
  • Bar-On R. R. (1996). Measuring the Effects on Tourism of Violence and of Promotion Following Violent Acts. İçinde: A. Pizam ve Y. Mansfeld (Editörler) Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues (ss. 159-174). New York: Wiley.
  • Bramwell B. ve Rawding L. (1996). Tourism Marketing Images of Industrial Cities, Annals of Tourism Research, 23 (1): 201-221.
  • Brookfield H. C. (1969). On the Environment as Perceived. İçinde: C. Board, P. Haggett, R. Chorley, ve D. Stoddert (Editörler) Progress in Geography (s. 68). Londra: Edward Arnold.
  • Bloom J. (1996). A South African Perspective of the Effects of Crime and Violence on the Tourism Industry. İçinde: A. Pizam ve Y. Mansfeld (Editörler) Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues (ss. 91-102). New York: Wiley.
  • Brady J. ve Widdows R. (1988). The Impact of World Events on Travel to Europe During the Summer of 1986, Journal of Travel Research, 26 (3): 8-10.
  • Buckley P. J. ve Klemm M. (1993). The Decline of Tourism in Northern Ireland: The Causes, Tourism Management, 14 (3):184-194.
  • Butler R. W. (1990). The Influence of the Media in Shaping International Tourist Patterns, Tourism Recreation Research, 15 (2): 46-53.
  • Chandler J. G. (1991). How Safe Are Our Airports?, Travel and Leisure, 21 (5):94-100.
  • Chesney-Lind M., ve Lind I. (1986). Visitors as Victims. Crimes Against Tourists in Hawaii, Annals of Tourism Research, 13(2): 167-191.
  • Chomsky N., ve Herman E. S. (1979). The Washington Connection and Third World Fascism. Kanada: Black Rose Books.
  • Chon K. S. (1991). Tourism Destination Image Modification Process: Marketing Implications, Tourism Management, 12 (1): 68-72.
  • Cohen E. (1996). Touting Tourists in Thailand: Tourist-Oriented Crime and Social Structure. İçinde: A. Pizam and Y. Mansfeld (Editörler) Tourism. Crime and International Securitv Issues (ss. 77-190). New York: Wiley.
  • Conant J. S., Clark T., Burnett J. J. ve Zank G. (1988). Terrorism and Travel: Managing the Unmanageable, Journal of Travel Research, 26 (4): 16-20.
  • Cook W. J. (1990). The Effect of Terrorism on Executives’ Willingness to Travel Internationallv (Basılmamış Doktora Tezi). New York: The City University of New York.
  • Cook R. L. ve McClearv K. W. (1983) Redefining Vacation Distances in Consumer Minds, Journal of Travel Research, 22 (3): l-34.
  • Crompton J. L. (1992). Structure of Vacation Destination Choice Sets, Annals of Tourism Research, 19 (3): 420-434.
  • Crompton J. L. (1979). An Assessment of the Image of Mexico as a Vacation Destination and the Influence of Geographical Location Upon that Image, Journal ofTrave Research, 17(4): 18-23.
  • D’Amore L. J. ve Anuza T. E. (1986). International Terrorism: Implications and Challenge for Global Tourism, Business Quarterly, 4: 20-29.
  • Dann G. M. S. (1993). Tourists’ Images of a Destination-an Alternative Analysis. İçinde: D. R. Fesenmaier, J. T.
  • O’Leary, ve M. Uysal (Editörler) Recent Advances in Tourism Marketing Research (ss. 41-55). New York: The Haworth Press.
  • Demos E. (1992). Concern for Safety: A Potential Problem in the Tourist Industry, Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 1 (1): 81-88.
  • Dichter E. (1985). What’s in an Image, The Journal of Consumer Marketing, 2 (1): 75-81.
  • Diller F. ve Scofidio D. (1994). Back to the Front: Tourisms of War. Basse-Normandie: FRAC.
  • Edgell Sr. D. L. (1990). International Tourism Policy. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
  • Echtner C. M. ve Ritchie J. R. B. (1991). The Measurement of Destination Image: An Empirical Assessment, Journal of Travel Research, 31(4): 3-13.
  • Ehemann J. (1977). What Kind of Place is Ireland: An Image Perceived through the American Media, Journal of Travel Research, 16 (2): 28-30.
  • Enders W. ve Sandler T. (1991). Causality between Transnational Terrorism and Tourism: The Case of Spain, Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 14 (1): 49-58.
  • Enders W., Sandler T. ve Parise G. F. (1992). An Econometric Analysis of the Impact of Terrorism on Tourism, Kyklos, 45 (4): 53l-554.
  • Englander D. W. (1991). What You Need to Know to Fly Safely Now, Money, 29 (3): 156.
  • Fedarko K. (1993). Holidays in Hell, Time, 23: 50-51.
  • Fletcher M. (1993). Egypt: Is This the Time to Visit?, Travel and Leisure, 23 (6): 60-64.
  • Galtung J. ve Ruge M. H. (1965). The Structure of Foreign News: The presentation of the Congo, Cuba and Cyprus crises in four Norwegian newspapers, Journal of Peace Research, 2 (1): 64-80.
  • Gartner W. C. (1993). Image Formation Process. In Recent Advances. İçinde: D. R. Fesenmaier, J. T. O’Leary ve M.
  • Uysal (Editörler) Tourism Marketing Research (ss. 191- 215). New York: The Haworth Press.
  • Gartner W. C. (1989). Tourism Image: Attribute Measurement of State Tourism Products Using Multidimensional Scaling Techniques, Journal of Travel Research, 28 (2): 16- 20.
  • Gartner W. C., ve Shen J. 1992 The Impact of Tiananmen Square on China’s Tourism Image, Journal of Travel Research, 30:47-52.
  • Goszczynska M., Tyszka T. ve Slavic P. (1991). Risk Perception in Poland: A Comparison with three other countries, Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 4 (3): 179-193.
  • Gu Z. ve Martin T. L. (1992). Terrorism, Seasonality, and International Air Tourist Arrivals in Central Florida: An Empirical Analysis, Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 1 (1): 3- 15.
  • Gunn C. (1972). Vacationscape. Austin TX: The University of Texas, Bureau of Business Research.
  • Hagerty B. (1993). Egypt Struggles to Reassure Tourists, Targets in a Wave of Terrorist Activity, Wall Street Journal, 1: 51.
  • Hall C. M. (1994). Tourism and Politics: Policy, Power and Place. New York: Wiley.
  • Hall C. M. ve O’Sullivan V. (1996). Tourism, Political Stability and Violence. İçinde: A. Pizam ve Y. Mansfeld (Editörler) Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues (ss. 105-l21). New York: Wiley.
  • Hartz C. (1989). Business Executives as International Terrorist Targets. İçinde: J. R. Buckwalter (Editör) International Terrorism: The Decade Ahead (ss. 21-28). Chicago: The University of Illinois at Chicago. Office of International Criminal Justice.
  • Hollier R. (1991). Conflict in the Gulf: Response of the Tourism Industry, Tourism Management, 12 (1): 2-4.
  • Hollinger R. (1995). Crime and Florida’s Tourists. İçinde: Security and Risks in Travel and Tourism, Proceedings of the Talk at the Top Conference (ss.183-215). Ostersund: MidSweden University.
  • Hurley J. A. (1988) The Hotels of Rome: Meeting the Marketing Challenge of Terrorism, The Cornell Quarterly, 29 (1): 71-79.
  • Jenkins B. (1987) The Future Course of International Terrorism. İçinde: A. Kurz (Editör) Contemporary Trends in World Terrorism (ss. 150-159). New York: Praeger.
  • Jenkins B. (1988). Future Trends in International Terrorism. İçinde: R. 0. Slater ve M. Stohl (Editörler) Current Perspectives on International Terrorism (ss. 246-266). London: Macmillan.
  • Karber P. A. (1971). Terrorism as Social Protest. (Basılmamış Çalışma).
  • Kemmer C. (1995). Resident and Visitor Safety and Security in Waikiki. İçinde: Security and Risks in Travel and Tourism, Proceedings of the Talk at the Top Conference, (ss. 75-83). Ostersund: Mid-Sweden University.
  • Lankford S. V. (1996). Crime and Tourism: A Study of Perceptions in the Pacific Northwest. İçinde: A. Pizam ve Y. Mansfeld (Editörler) Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues (ss. 51-58). New York: Wiley.
  • Lea J. P. (1996). Tourism, Tealpolitik and Development in the South Pacific. İçinde: A. Pizam ve Y. Mansfeld (Editörler) Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues (ss. 123-142). New York: Wiley.
  • LeBruto S. M. (1996). Legal Aspects of Tourism and Violence. İçinde: A. Pizam ve Y. Mansfeld (Editörler) Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues (ss. 297-310). New York: Wiley.
  • Lehrman C. K. (1986). When Fact and Fantasy Collide: Crisis Management in the Travel Industry, Public Relations Journal, 42: 25-28.
  • Mansfeld Y. (1992). From Motivation to Actual Travel, Annals of Tourism Research, 19 (3): 399-419.
  • Mansfeld Y. (1996). Wars, Tourism and the “Middle East” Factor. İçinde: A. Pizam ve Y. Mansfeld (Editörler) Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues (ss. 265-278). New York: Wiley.
  • Mansfeld Y. ve Kliot N. (1996). The Tourism Industry in the Partitioned Island of Cyprus. İçinde: A. Pizam ve Y.
  • Mansfeld (Editörler) Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues, (ss. 187-202). New York: Wiley.
  • Mayo E. J. (1973). Regional Images and Regional Travel Behavior. İçinde: The Travel Research Association Fourth Annual Conference Proceedings (ss. 211-218). Boulder: The University of Colorado Business Division.
  • Mechitov A. I. ve Rebrik S. B. (1990). Studies of Risk and Safety Perception in USSR. İçinde: K. Borcherding, 0. I.
  • Larichev ve D. M. Messick (Editörler) Contemporary Issues in Decision Making (ss. 261-270). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
  • Mihalic T. (1996). Tourism and Warfare. The Case of Slovenia. İçinde: A. Pizam ve Y. Mansfeld (Editörler) Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues (ss. 23l-246). New York: Wiley.
  • Murphy J. F. (1989). State Support of International Terrorism. San Francisco: Westview Press.
  • Ni Aolain F. (1996). Where Hope and History RhymeProspects for Peace in Northern Ireland?, Journal of International Affairs, 50 (1): 63-89.
  • Norton G. (1987). Tourism and International Terrorism. The World Today, 43: 30-33.
  • O’Neill M. A. ve Fitz F. (1996). Northern Ireland Tourism: What Chance Now?, Tourism Management, 17 (3): 161-163.
  • Pelton R. Y. ve Aral C. (1995). The World’s Most Dangerous Places. Redondo Beach CA: Fielding Worldwide.
  • Pitts W. J. (1996). Uprising in Chiapas, Mexico: Zapata Lives: Tourism Falters. İçinde: A. Pizam ve Y. Mansfeld (Editörler) Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues (ss. 215-227). New York: Wiley.
  • Pizam A. (1982). Tourism and Crime: Is There a Relationship? Journal of Travel Research, 20 (3): 7-10.
  • Pizam A. ve Mansfeld Y. (1996). Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues. New York: Wiley.
  • Poland J. M. (1988). Understanding Terrorism. Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice-Hall.
  • Prideaux B. (1996). The Tourism Crime Cycle: A Beach Destination Case Study. İçinde: A. Pizam ve Y. Mansfeld (Editörler) Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues (ss. 59-75). New York: Wiley.
  • Ranstorp M. (1996). Terrorism in the Name of Religion, Journal of International Affairs, 50 (1): 41 62.
  • Reeves R. (1987). Thoughts on Terrorism, Travel and Leisure, 17: 64-66.
  • Richter L. K. (1980). The Political Uses of Tourism: A Philippine Case Study, The Journal of Developing Areas, 14 (2): 237-257.
  • Richter L. K. ve Waugh Jr W. L. (1983). Tourism Politics and Political Science: A Case of Not So Benign Neglect, Annals of Tourism Research, 10 (3): 313-315.
  • Richter L. K. ve Waugh Jr W. L. (1986). Terrorism and Tourism as Logical Companions, Tourism Management, 7 (4): 230-238.
  • Roehl W. S. and Fesenmaier D. R. (1992). Risk Perceptions and Pleasure Travel: An Exploratory Analysis, Journal of Travel Research, 30 (4): 17-26.
  • Ryan C. (1993). Crime, Violence, Terrorism and Tourism: An Accidental or Intrinsic Relationship?, Tourism Management, 14 (3): 173-183.
  • Ryan C. ve Kinder R. (1996). The Deviant Tourist and the Crimogenic Place: the Case of the Tourist and the New England Prostitute. İçinde: A. Pizam ve Y. Mansfeld (Editörler) Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues (ss. 23-26). New York: Wiley.
  • Schiebler S. A., Crotts J. C. ve Hollinger R. C. (1996). Florida Tourists’ Vulnerability to Crime. İçinde: A. Pizam ve Y.
  • Mansfeld (Editörler) Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues (ss. 37-50). New York: Wiley.
  • Schlagheck D. M. (1988). International Terrorism. Lexington MA: Lexington Books.
  • Schwartz R. D. (1991). Travelers under Fire: Tourists in the Tibetan Uprising, Annals of Tourism Research, 18 (4): 588- 604.
  • Scott R. (1988). Managing Crisis in Tourism: A Case Study of Fiji, Travel and Tourism Analyst (6): 57-71.
  • Sharpley R. ve Sharpley J. (1995). Travel Advice: Security or Politics? İçinde: Security and Risks in Travel and Tourism, Proceedings of the Talk at the Top Conference (ss. 168- 182). Ostersund: Mid-Sweden University.
  • Skolnik R. (1991). US Travel and Tourism Today. Public Relations Journal 47: 16-2 1.
  • Smith V. (1996). War and its Tourist Attractions. İçinde: A. Pizam ve Y. Mansfeld (Editörler) Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues (ss. 247-264). New York: Wiley.
  • Sonmez S. F., Backman S. J. ve Allen L. R. (1994). Managing Tourism Crises: A Guidebook. Clemson, SC: Clemson University.
  • Sonmez S. F. ve Graefe A. R. (1998). International Vacation Decisions and Terrorism Risk, Annals of Tourism Research, 25 (1): 112-144.
  • Sonmez S. F. ve Graefe A. R. (1996). Risk Perceptions of US International Vacation Travelers. İçinde: Proceedings of the 27th Annual Travel and Tourism Research Association (ss. 192-200). Las Vegas, Nevada. Boulder: The University of Colorado Business Division.
  • Tarlow P. ve Muehsam M. (1996). Theoretical Aspects of Crime as They Impact the Tourism Industry. İçinde: A.
  • Pizam ve Y. Mansfeld (Editörler) Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues (ss. 1l-22). New York: Wiley.
  • Teye V. B. (1986). Liberation Wars and Tourism Development in Africa: The Case of Zambia, Annals of Tourism Research, 13 (4): 589-608.
  • Teye V. B. (1988). Coups d’Etat and African Tourism: A Study of Ghana, Annals of Tourism Research, 15 (3): 329-56
  • The Economist. (1986a). East, West, Home’s Best. The Economist, 300: 28.
  • The Economist. (1986b). Europe Suffers From American Stayaways, The Economist, 299: 63-64.
  • The Economist. (1990). Ambushing the Peace Bus. The Economist, 314: 41-42.
  • Tiegen K. H. Brun W. ve Slavic P. (1988). Societal Risks as Seen by a Norwegian Public, Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 1 (2): 111-130.
  • Tremblay P. (1989). Pooling International Tourism in Western Europe, Annals of Tourism Research, 16 (4): 477-491.
  • Urn, S. ve Crompton J. L. (1992). The Roles of Perceived Inhibitors and Facilitators in Pleasure Travel Destination Decisions, Journal of Travel Research, 30 (3): 18-25.
  • US House of Representatives. (1991). The Impact of the Threat of Terrorism and the Recession on the Travel and Tourism Industry. Serial No. 102-6. Washington DC: US Government Printing Office.
  • US Department of State. (1997). Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1996. Washington DC: US Department of State.
  • US Department of State. (1996). Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1995. Washington DC: US Department of State.
  • Vanraaij W. F. ve Francken D. A. (1984). Vacation Decisions, Activities, and Satisfactions, Annals of Tourism Research, 11 (1): 101-l 12.
  • Wahab S. (1996). Tourism and Terrorism: Synthesis of the Problem with Emphasis on Egypt. İçinde: A. Pizam ve Y. Mansfeld (Editörler) Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues (ss. 175-186). New York: Wiley.
  • Wahab S. (1995). Terrorism: A Challenge to Tourism. İçinde: Security and Risks in Travel and Tourism, Proceedings of the Talk at the Top Conference (ss. 84-108). Ostersund: Mid-Sweden University.
  • Wall G. (1996). Terrorism and Tourism: An Overview and an Irish Example. İçinde: A. Pizam ve Y. Mansfeld (Editörler) Tourism,Crime and International Security Issues (ss. 143- 158). New York: Wiley.
  • Waugh Jr. W. L. (1990). Terrorism and Emergency Management. New York: Marcel Dekker.
  • Weimann G. ve Winn C. (1994). The Theater of Terror: Mass Media and International Terrorism. White Plains NY: Longman. Wieviorka M. (1994). The Making of Terrorism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  • Witt S. F. ve Moore S. A. (1992). Promoting Tourism in the Face of Terrorism: The Role of Special Events in Northern Ireland, Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 4 (3): 63-75.
  • Woodside A. G. ve Lysonski A. (1989). A General Model of Traveler Destination Choice, Journal of Travel Research, 27 (4): 8-14.
  • World Tourism Organization. (1991). Impact of the Gulf Crisis on International Tourism. World Tourism Organization Special Report. Madrid Spain: WTO.