TWO DIMENSIONS OF INTERPERSONAL TOLERANCE: THEIR PREVALENCE AND ETIOLOGY IN WORLD CIVILIZATIONS
This research provides three additional insights into the concept of tolerance. First, it provides empirical insights to the previous research, distinguishing between two dimensions of tolerance; political tolerance and social tolerance. Second, it investigates the extent these two dimensions of tolerance prevail in different civilizations in the world. Third, it shows how etiology of tolerance differs across civilizations. In short, this research shows that tolerance of national and religious groups differs from tolerance of social groups in both kind and degree and investigates to what extent the prevalence and etiology of these two dimensions of tolerance differ across civilizations. In this research time series evidence from subsequent rounds of the World Values Survey (WVS) for over seventy countries are analysed using Ordered Probit models.
KİŞİLERARASI HOŞGÖRÜNÜN İKİ BOYUTU: DÜNYA MEDENİYETLERİNDEKİ YAYGINLIK VE NEDENBİLİMLERİ
Bu araştırma, hoşgörü kavramına üç yeni bakış açısı sunmaktadır. İlk olarak bu çalışma hoşgörünün siyasi hoşgörü ve sosyal hoşgörü olmak üzere iki boyutunu birbirinden ayrıştıran önceki çalışmalara deneysel bir kavrayış katmaktadır. İkinci olarak dünya medeniyetlerinde bu iki hoşgörü boyutunun yaygınlığını araştırmaktadır. Üçüncü olarak ise hoşgörü nedenbiliminin bu medeniyetler arasında nasıl farklılaştığını göstermektedir. Kısacası, bu araştırma ulusal ve dini gruplara yönelik hoşgörünün sosyal gruplara yönelik hoşgörüden hem tür hem de derece olarak farklı olduğunu göstermekte ve bu iki hoşgörü boyutunun yaygınlığının ve nedenbilimin medeniyetler arasında farklılık gösterdiğini savunmaktadır. Bu araştırmada yetmişin üzerinde ülkeden toplanan Dünya Değerler Anketi'nin sıralı anketlerinden elde edilen zaman serisi verileri Sıralı Probit modelleri kullanılarak analiz edilmiştir.
___
- Andersen, Robert. and Tina Fetner (2008), “Cohort differences in tolerance of
homosexuality: Attitudinal change in Canada and the United States, 1981–
2000”, Public Opinion Quarterly, 72 (2): 311-330.
- Avery, Patricia G., Karen Bird, Sandra Johnstone, John L. Sullivan and Kristina
Thalhammer (1992), “Exploring political tolerance with adolescents”, Theory &
Research in Social Education, 20 (4): 386-420.
- Bobo, Lawrence. and Frederick C. Licari (1989), “Education and political
tolerance: Testing the effects of cognitive sophistication and target group
affect”, Public Opinion Quarterly, 53 (3): 285-308.
- Bohman, James (2003), “Deliberative toleration”, Political Theory, 31 (6): 757-
779.
- Breslin, Ann (1982), “Tolerance and moral reasoning among adolescents in
Ireland”, Journal of Moral Education, 11 (2): 112-127.
- Bryant, Fred B., and Paul R. Yarnold (1995), Principal-components analysis and
exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis.
- Butrus, Ninava and Rivka T. Witenberg (2013), “Some personality predictors of
tolerance to human diversity: The roles of openness, agreeableness, and
empathy”, Australian Psychologist, 48 (4): 290-298.
- Corbett, Michael (1980), “Education and Contextual Tolerance: GroupRelatedness
and Consistency Reconsidered”, American Politics Quarterly, 8 (3):
345-359.
- Crocker, David A. (2004), Tolerance and deliberative democracy, In XV
Congresso Interamericano de Filosofia/II Congresso Iberoamericano de
Filosofia, Lima–Peru.
- Davis, James A. (1975), “Communism, conformity, cohorts, and categories:
American tolerance in 1954 and 1972-73”, American Journal of Sociology, 81
(3): 491-513.
- Duch, Raymond M. and James L. Gibson (1992), “‘Putting Up With’ Fascists in
Western Europe: A Comparative, Cross-Level Analysis of Political
Tolerance”, Western Political Quarterly, 45 (1): 237-273.
- Erişen, Cengiz (2016), Tolerance and democratization in Turkey: Democratic
consolidation in Turkey: Micro and macro challenges (London and New York):
38-64.
- Erişen, Cengiz and Emre Erdoğan (2019), “Growing perceived threat and
prejudice as sources of intolerance: evidence from the 2015 Turkish general
elections”, Turkish Studies, 20 (1): 1-25.
- Eyler, Janet (1980), “Citizenship education for conflict: An empirical assessment
of the relationship between principled thinking and tolerance for conflict and
diversity”, Theory & Research in Social Education, 8 (2): 11-26.
- Field, Andy (2000), Discovering statistics with SPSS for Windows.
- Forst, Rainer (2001), “Tolerance as a Virtue of Justice”, Philosophical
Explorations, 4 (3): 193-206.
- Forst, Rainer (2018), Toleration, justice and reason: In The culture of toleration
in diverse societies (Manchester University Press).
- Gibson, James L. (1988), “Political intolerance and political repression during
the McCarthy Red Scare”, American Political Science Review, 82 (2): 511-529.
- Gibson, James L. (1989), “The structure of attitudinal tolerance in the United
States”, British Journal of Political Science, 19 (4): 562-570.
- Gibson, James L. (1992), “Alternative Measures of Political Tolerance: Must
Tolerance be ‘Least-Liked’?”, American Journal of Political Science, 560-577.
- Gibson, James L. (2006), “Enigmas of intolerance: Fifty years after Stouffer's
communism, conformity, and civil liberties”, Perspectives on Politics, 4 (1): 21-
34.
- Gibson, James L. (2013), “Measuring Political Tolerance and General Support
for Pro–Civil Liberties Policies: Notes, Evidence, and Cautions”, Public Opinion
Quarterly, 77 (S1): 45-68.
- Gibson, James L. and Richard D. Bingham (1982), “On the conceptualization
and measurement of political tolerance”, American Political Science Review, 76
(3): 603-620.
- Gibson, James L. and Duch, Raymond M. (1993), “Political intolerance in the
USSR: The distribution and etiology of mass opinion”, Comparative Political
Studies, 26 (3): 286-329.
- Gibson, James L. and Amanda Gouws (2005), Overcoming intolerance in South
Africa: Experiments in democratic persuasion (Cambridge University Press).
- Gibson, James L. and Kent L. Tedin (1988), “The etiology of intolerance of
homosexual politics”, Social Science Quarterly, 69 (3): 587.
- Hair, Joseph F. (2006), Multivariate data analysis (Pearson Education India).
- Hayton, James C., David G. Allen and Vida Scarpello (2004), “Factor retention
decisions in exploratory factor analysis: A tutorial on parallel analysis”,
Organizational Research Methods, 7: 191-205.
- İnan, Murat (2016), The Generational and Social Class Bases of Pro-Democratic
Culture in Turkey: A Quantitative Analysis with WVS Data (Doctoral
dissertation, University of Sheffield).
- İnan, Murat and Maria T. Grasso (2017), “A participatory generation? The
generational and social class bases of political activism in Turkey”, Turkish
Studies, 18 (1): 10-31.
- Inglehart, Ronald and Pippa Norris (2003), “The true clash of
civilizations”, Foreign policy, 63-70.
- Inglehart, Ronald and Christian Welzel (2005), Modernization, cultural change,
and democracy: The human development sequence (Cambridge University
Press).
- Kim, Jae-On and Charles W. Mueller (1978), Factor analysis: Statistical
methods and practical issues (No. 14) (Sage).
- Lawrence, David G. (1976), “Procedural norms and tolerance: A
reassessment”, American Political Science Review, 70 (1): 80-100.
- Lipset, Seymur M. (1959), “Some social requisites of democracy: Economic
development and political legitimacy”, American political science review, 53 (1):
69-105.
- Lipset, Seymour M. and Earl Raab (1970), The politics of unreason (Harper &
Row).
- Marcus, George E., John L. Sullivan, Elizabeth Theiss‐Morse and Daniel
Stevens (2005), “The emotional foundation of political cognition: The impact of
extrinsic anxiety on the formation of political tolerance judgments”, Political
Psychology, 26 (6): 949-963.
- McClosky, Herbert and Alida Brill (1983), Dimensions of tolerance (New York:
Russell Sage Foundation), 104.
- Mishler, William and Richard Rose (2001), “What are the origins of political
trust? Testing institutional and cultural theories in post-communist
societies” Comparative political studies, 34 (1): 30-62.
- Mondak, Jeffrey J. and Mitchell S. Sanders (2003), “Tolerance and intolerance,
1976–1998”, American Journal of Political Science, 47 (3): 492-502.
- Mueller, John (1988), “Trends in political tolerance”, Public Opinion
Quarterly, 52 (1): 1-25.
- Nunn, Cylde Z., Harry J. Crockett and Allen J. Williams (1978), Tolerance for
nonconformity (Jossey-Bass Incorporated Pub).
- Peffley, Mark, Pia Knigge and John Hurwitz (2001), “A multiple values model
of political tolerance”, Political Research Quarterly, 54 (2): 379-406.
- Peffley, Mark and Robert Rohrschneider (2003), “Democratization and political
tolerance in seventeen countries: A multi-level model of democratic
learning”, Political Research Quarterly, 56 (3): 243-257.
- Prothro, James W. and Charles M. Grigg (1960), “Fundamental principles of
democracy: Bases of agreement and disagreement”, The Journal of Politics, 22
(2): 276-294.
- Putnam, Robert D., Robert Leonardi and Rafaella Y. Nanetti (1993), Making
democracy work: Civic institutions in modern Italy.
- Sanford, Nevitt (1973), Authoritarian personality in contemporary
perspective, Handbook of political psychology, 139-170.
- Snedecor, George W. and Wittiam G. Cochran (1989), Statistical methods, 8th
Ed., (Ames: Iowa State Univ. Press Iowa).
- Sniderman, Paul M. (1975), Personality and democratic politics (Univ of
California Press).
- Stouffer, Samuel A. (1955), Communism, conformity, and civil liberties: A
cross-section of the nation speaks its mind (Transaction Publishers).
- Sullivan, John L., George E. Marcus, Stanley Feldman and James E. Piereson
(1981), “The sources of political tolerance: A multivariate analysis”, American
Political Science Review, 75 (1): 92-106.
- Sullivan, John L. and George E. Marcus (1979), “An alternative
conceptualization of political tolerance: Illusory increases 1950s–
1970s”, American Political Science Review, 73 (3): 781-794.
- Sullivan, John L. and George E. Marcus (1993), Political tolerance and
American democracy (University of Chicago Press).
- Sullivan, John L. and John E. Transue (1999), “The psychological
underpinnings of democracy: A selective review of research on political
tolerance, interpersonal trust, and social capital”, Annual review of
psychology, 50 (1): 625-650.
- Zellman, Gail L. and David O. Sears (1971), “Childhood origins of tolerance for
dissent”, Journal of Social Issues, 27 (2): 109-136.