Bosna’da Timar Sisteminin Sonu (18. Yüzyıldan 20. Yüzyıla)

Tarihçiler uzun zamandır tımar sisteminin 16. yüzyılın sonundan itibaren düşüşte olduğunu ve yerini yeni bir sisteme, çiftlik sistemine bıraktığını düşünmüşlerdir. Ancak gerçek bilgi ve yeni kavramsal araçlar bu görüşü zayıflatmıştır. Kaynaklar çiftliklerin ortaya çıkışının ve yeni seçkinlerin daha 17. yüzyılda yükselmesinin henüz tımarların sonu anlamına gelmediğini; bazı illerde geç zamanlara kadar varlığını sürdürdüğü bir gerçektir. Bu nedenle, şimdiye kadar timarların çöküşünü simgeleyen ve nihayetinde onlar için ölümcül olan rekabetçi bir tarihsel süreç olarak düşünülen timar-çiftlik ilişkisini yeniden düşünmek gerekir. Gerileme nosyonu sorgulandığında ya da en azından göreceli hâle getirildiğinde, çiftlik’in, paranın giderek daha fazla değer kaybetmesiyle toprak sahipliğini teşvik eden 18. yüzyılın mali çerçevesi içinde, maliyenin bir tamamlayıcı unsuru olarak ortaya çıktığını düşünebiliriz. Bu eğilimin, Osmanlı seçkinlerinin toprak mülkiyetiyle ilişkisi üzerinde geniş kapsamlı sonuçları oldu.

The End of the timar System in Bosnia, 18th - 20th Century

Ottomanists have long thought that the timar system was in decline from the end of the sixteenth century, and that it gave way to a new system, the çiftlik system. However, actual knowledge and new conceptual tools have undermined this opinion. Sources have showed that the appearance of çiftlik’s and the rise of new elites as early as the 17th century had not yet signified the end of the timar’s; it is a fact that they continued to be present until late in some provinces. It is therefore necessary to rethink the timar-çiftlik relationship, hitherto conceived as a competitive historical process which supposedly signified the decline of the timar’s and ultimately ended them. As soon as the notion of decline is questioned, or at least relativized, we are able to think of the genesis of çiftlik’s as the establishment of a fiscal complementarity, in the fiscal frame of the eighteenth century, when fiscal incitation to seizing soil was given by more and more depreciating value of money. This trend had far-reaching consequences for the relation the Ottoman elites had with landed possession.

___

  • Bibliography Adanır, Fikret: ‘The Ottoman Peasantries, c.1360-c.1860’, in Tom Scott (ed.), The Peasantries of Europe from the Fourteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries (London: Longman, 1998), 269–310. Agrarius: Agrarni propisi za Bosnu i Hercegovinu, uz dodatak nekih najvažnijih agrarnih običaja [Agrarian regulations for Bosnia and Herzegovina, with some of the most important agricultural practices] (Sarajevo: Kajon, 1911). Aličić, Ahmed S. (ed.): Sumarni popis sandžaka Bosna iz 1468/69. godine [Shorten census of the Bosnian sandjak of 1468-9] (Sarajevo: Dobra knjiga, 2014). Aličić, Ahmed S.: ‘Desetina u Bosni polovinom XIX vijeka’ [The tithe in Bosnia in the mid-nineteenth century], Prilozi Instituta za istoriju 16 (1980), 129–174. Aličić, Ahmed S. (ed.): ‘Manuskript Ahvali Bosna od Muhameda Emina Isevića (poč. XIX v.). Uvod, prevod s turskog i napomene Ahmed S. Aličić’, Prilozi za orijentalnu filologiju 32–33 (1982-3), 163–198 (trad. ang.: ‘Manucript Ahval-i Bosna by Muhamed Emin Isević (early 19th Century). Introduction, translation from Turkish and annotations’, Prilozi za orijentalnu filologiju, 50 (2002), 227–264; transcription in Latin alphabet by Mahir Aydın, ‘Bosnada Bağ boszumu “İsyan öncesinde kargaşa”’, in Coll., Bosnia & Herzegovina. Common History and Multicultural Atmospher in the Balkans (Istanbul: IBAC, 2015), 115–146). Aličić, Ahmed S.: ‘Prilog proučavanju položaja sela i grada u Bosni u XIX vijeku’ [Contribution to the study of villages and towns in Bosnia in the nineteenth century], Jugoslovenski istorijski časopis, 1-2 (1974), 79–91. Aličić, Ahmed S.: Uređenje Bosanskog ejaleta od 1789. do 1878. godine [Administration of Bosnian eyalet 1789-1878] (Sarajevo: OIS, 1983). Alićić, Ahmed S.: Pokret za autonomiju Bosne od 1831. do 1832. godine [Movement for an autonomous Bosnia 1831-1832] (Sarajevo: OIS, 1996). Ancel, Jacques: La Macédoine. Étude de colonisation contemporaine (Paris: s.n., 1930). Asbóth, Johann von: Bosnien und die Herzegowina. Reisebilder und Studien (Wien: Alfred Hölder, k. k. Hof- und Universitäts-Buchhändler, 1888). Atran, Scott: ‘Le masha’a et la question foncière en Palestine, 1858-1948’, Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales, 42 (1987), 6 (Nov.-Dec.), 1361–1389. Aytekin, E. Attila: ‘Agrarian Relations, Property and Law. An Analysis of the Land Code of 1858 in the Ottoman Empire’, Middle Eastern Studies, 45/6 (Nov. 2009), 935–951. Aytekin, E. Attila: ‘Historiography of Land Tenure and Agriculture in the Nineteenth Century Ottoman Empire’, Asian Research Trends - New Series (2009), 1–19. Baer, Gabriel: ‘The Evolution of Private Landownership in Egypt and the Fertile Crescent’, in Charles Issawi (ed.), The Economic History of the Middle East (Chicago/London: The University of Chicago Press, 1966), 79–90. Barjaktarović, Mirko: О земљишним међама у Срба [Land bordering by the Serbs] (Beograd: Naučna knjiga, 1952). Barkan, Ömer Lutfi: ”Çiftlik”, İslam Ansiklopedisi (Istanbul: Millî Eǧitim Basımevi, 1943) in BCS: ‘Чифлук (çiftlik)’, Godišnjak istoriskog društva BiH, 2 (1950), 287–298). Bašagić-Redžepašić, Safvet-beg: Kratka uputa u prošlost Bosne i Hercegovine (od g. 1463.-1850.) [A brief introduction to the past of Bosnia and Herzegovina 1463-1850] (Sarajevo: Vlastita naklada, 1900). Belarbi, Louba: ‘Les mutations dans les structures foncières dans l’Empire ottoman à l’époque du Tanzimat’, in Jean-Louis Bacqué-Grammont and Paul Dumont (eds), Économie et sociétés dans l’Empire ottoman (fin du XVIIIe-début du XXe siècle) (Paris: Éd. du CNRS, 1983), 251–259. Belin, François: ‘Du régime des fiefs militaires dans l’islamisme, et principalement en Turquie’, Journal asiatique, S6 15/2 (1870), 187–301. Belin, François: Étude sur la propriété foncière en pays musulman, et spécialement en Turquie (rite hanéfite) (Paris: Imprimerie impériale, 1862), 180–248. Berić, Dušan: Устанак у Херцеговини 1852–1862 [Herzegovinian uprising 1852-1862] (Beograd/Novi Sad: SANU, 1994). Berktay, Halil: New Approaches to State and Peasant in Ottoman History (London: Cass, 1992). Busch-Zantner, Richard: Agrarverfassung, Gesellschaft und Siedlung in Südosteuropa unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Türkenzeit (Leipzig: Harrassowitz, 1938). Buturović, Derviš (ed.): ‘Isprave spahiskih porodica iz nahije Neretve’ [Documents of sipahi families from the Neretva nahiye], Prilozi za orijentalnu filologiju, 6-7 (1956-57), 193–258. Chiha, Nédjib H.: Traité de la propriété immobilière en droit ottoman (Le Caire: El-Maaref, 1906). Clayer, Nathalie: ‘Note sur la survivance du système des timâr dans la région de Shköder au début du XXe siècle’, Turcica, 29 (1997), 423–431. Clayer, Nathalie: ‘Quand l’hagiographie se fait l’écho des dérèglements socio-politiques: le menakibname de Müniri Belgradi’, in Gilles Veinstein (dir.), Syncrétismes et hérésies dans l'Orient seldjoukide et ottoman (XIVe-XVIIIe siècle) (Paris etc.: Peeters, 2005), 363–381. Congost, Rosa and Rui Santos (eds): Contexts of Property in Europe. The Social Embeddedness of Property Rights in Land in Historical Perspective (Turnhout: Brepols, 2010). Cvijić, Jovan: La Péninsule balkanique. Géographie humaine (Paris: Armand Colin, 1918). Čar-Drnda, Hatidža: ‘Remnants of the Tîmâr System in the Bosnian Vilâyet in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century’, International Journal of Turkish Studies, 10 (2004), 171–174. D’Ohsson, Mouradgea C.: Tableau général de l’Empire ottoman, 7 volumes (Paris: Didot Père et fils, 1824). Darling, Linda T.: ‘Nasihatnameler, İcmal Defterleri, and the Timar-Holding Ottoman Elite in the Late Sixteenth Century’, Osmanlı Araştırmaları, 43 (2014), 193–226. Darling, Linda T.: ‘Nasihatnameler, İcmal Defterleri, and the Timar-Holding Ottoman Elite in the Late Sixteenth Century — Part II, Including the Seventeenth Century’, Osmanlı Araştırmaları, 45 (2015), 1–23. Davison, Roderic: Reform in the Ottoman Empire 1856-1876 (1963) (New York: Gordian Press, 1973). Dedijer, Jevto: ‘Врсте непокретне својине у Херцеговини’ [Types of immovable property in Herzegovina], Glasnik Zemaljskog muzeja, 20 (1908), 387–402. Dedijer, Jevto: ‘Херцеговина. Антропогеографске студије’ [Herzegovina. Anthropogeographical studies], Srpski etnografski zbornik, 12 (1909), 3–448 (coverback: Херцеговина. Антропогеографске студије (Sarajevo: Veselin Masleša, 1989)). Dobrača, Kasim (ed.): Gazi Husrev-begova biblioteka u Sarajevu. Katalog arapskih, turskih i perzijskih rukopisa. Svezak drugi [Gazi Husrev Bey Library in Sarajevo. A catalog of Arabic, Turkish and Persian manuscripts. Volume Two] (1979) (Londres/Sarajevo: Al-Furqan/El-Kalem, 2002). Dombay, Franz von: Geschichte des Türkischen Reiches (Wien: Sebastian Hartl, 1789). Dostović, Nihad (ed.): 'Dva dokumenta iz tuzlanskog sidžila iz 1054–55. h. g./1644–45. godine u Gazi Husrev-begovoj biblioteci' [Two documents from the Tuzla sicil of 1054-1055/1644-1645 in the Gazi Husrev Bey Library], Anali Gazi Husrev-begove biblioteke, 33 (2012), 59–106. Đurđev, Branislav: ‘O uticaju turske vladavine na razvitak naših naroda’ [On the influence of Turkish rule on the development of our nations], Godišnjak Istorijskog društva Bosne i Hercegovine, 2 (1950), 19–82. Đurđev, Branislav: ‘О војнуцима са освртом на развој турског феудализма и на питање турског агалука’ [Voynuk-s and the development of Turkish feudalism, with views on Turkish ağalık], Glasnik Zemaljskog muzeja, NS 2 (1947), 75–138. Đurđev, Branislav: ‘Прилог питању развитка и карактера турско-османског феудализма-тимарско-спахиског уређења’ [The development and character of Turkish-Ottoman feudalism — the timar system], Godišnjak Istorijskog društva Bosne i Hercegovine, 1 (1949), 101–167. Đurđev, Branislav: Nedim Filipović and Hamid Hadžibegić (eds), Kanuni i kanun-name za bosanski, hercegovački, zvornički, kliški, crnogorski i skadarski sandžak [Kanun and anunname for the sandjaks of Bosnia, Herzegovina, Zvornik, Klis, Montenegro and Skadar] (Sarajevo: OIS, 1957). El-Akhisâri, Hasan Kâfî: Izabrani spisi. Uvod, prevod i bilješke Amir Ljubović, Fehim Nametak [Selected works. Introduction, translation and notes of Amir Ljubović and Fehim Nametak] (Sarajevo: Veselin Masleša, 1983). Filipović, Milenko S.: ‘Eksoprik, miraščija ili priorac kroz vekove. Prilog poznavanju života na selu kod Južnih Slovena’ [Outsiders in countryside by the South Slavs], Radovi ND SR BiH, 20/7 (1963), 173–183. Filipović, Milenko S.: Prilozi etnološkom poznavanju severoistočne Bosne [A Contributions to ethnological knowledge of northeastern Bosnia] (Sarajevo: ANUBiH, 1969). Filipović, Nedim: ‘Odžakluk timari u Bosni i Hercegovini’, Prilozi za orijentalnu filologiju 5 (1954-1955), 251–274 (in Turk. ‘Bosna-Hersek’de timar sisteminin inkişafında bazı hususlar’, Iktisat Fakültesi Mecmuası 15 (1954), 154–188; in Eng..: ‘Ocaklik Timars in Bosnia and Herzegovina’, Prilozi za orijentalnu filologiju, 36 (1987), 149–180). Filipović, Nenad: ‘Pitanje osmanske vlasti u Crnoj Gori, razvoj jugoslovenske osmanistike i Branislav Đurđev’ [Ottoman power on Montenegro, the development of Yugoslav Ottomanism and Branislav Đurđev], in Dževad Juzbašić (ed.), Naučno djelo akademika Branislava Đurđeva (Sarajevo: ANUBiH, 2010), 47–84. Fodor, Pal: ‘State and Society. Crisis and Reform in 15th-17th Century Ottoman Mirror for Princes’, Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 40/2-3 (1986), 217–240. Freas, Erik Eliav: ‘Ottoman Reform, Islam, and Palestine’s Peasantry’, The Arab Studies Journal, 18/1 (2010), 196–231. Gelez, Philippe: Pauvreté et modernité dans une province ottomane. La question agraire en Bosnie 1800-1918 [Poverty and modernity in an Ottoman province. The agrarian question in Bosnia 1800-1918], Habilitation thesis defended at the EHESS (Paris) in 2016. Georgeon, François, Nicolas Vatin and Gilles Veinstein (dir.): Dictionnaire de l’Empire ottoman (Paris: Fayard, 2015). Gerber, Haim: The Social Origins of the Moderne Middle East (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1987). Gölen, Zafer: ‘Bosna Timar Ruznamçe Defterlerine Göre XIX. Yüzyıl Başlarında Bosna Eyâleti Timar ve Zeametleri’, in Alaattin Aköz, Slobodan Ilić, Doğan Yörük and Danko Leovac (eds), Osmanlı İdaresinde Balkanlar I (Konya: Palet Yayınları, 2020), 279–298. Gölen, Zafer: Tanzimat döneminde Bosna-Hersek (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 2010). Gözel, Oya: The Implementation of the Ottoman Land Code of 1858 in Eastern Anatolia, unpublished MA thesis (Ankara: Orta Doğu Teknik Üniversitesi, 2007). Guignard, Didier: ‘Les inventeurs de la tradition “melk” et “arch” en Algérie’, in Vanessa Guéno and Didier Guignard (dir.), Les acteurs des transformations foncières autour de la Méditerranée au XIXe siècle (Paris/Aix: Karthala/MMSH, 2013), 49–93. Güran, Tevfik and Ahmet Uzun, ‘Bosna-Hersek’te toprak rejimi. Eshâb-ı alâka ve çiftçiler arasındaki ilişkiler (1840-1875)’, Belleten 70/259 (2006), 867–902. Habesci, Elias: The Present State of the Ottoman Empire (London: Baldwin, 1784) (in French: État actuel de l'Empire ottoman, traduit de l'anglois par M. Fontanelle, 2 volumes (Paris: Lavillette, 1792)). Hadžibegić, Hamid (ed.): ‘Rasprava Ali Čauša iz Sofije o timarskoj organizaciji u XVII stoljeću’ [Sofyalı Ali Çauş’s study on timar organization], Glasnik Zemaljskog muzeja, NS 2 (1947), 139–206. Hadžibegić, Hamid (ed.): ‘Канун-нама Султана Сулјемана Законодавца из првих година његове владе’ [Süleyman-the-Magnificent’s kanun-name from the first years of his government], Glasnik Zemaljskog muzeja, 4-5 (1950), 295–381. Hadžibegović, Iljas: Postanak radničke klase u Bosni i Hercegovini i njen razvoj do 1914. godine [Genesis of the working class in Bosnia-Herzegovina and its development till 1914] (Sarajevo: Svjetlost, 1980). Hammer, Joseph von: Des osmanischen Reichs Staatsverfassung und Staatsverwaltung, 2 volumes (Wien: Camesinasche Buchhandlung, 1815). Herzog, Christoph: ‘Some Notes About the Members of Parliament from the Proviince of Baghdad’, in Christoph Herzog and Malek Sharif (eds), The First Ottoman Experiment in Democracy (Würzburg: Ergon Verlag, 2010), 275–284. Hodžić, Šaban: ‘Poziv Hadži Muje Mehovića upućen muslimanima i hrišćanima’ [Hadži Mujo Mehović’s calling to Muslims and Christians], Glasnik arhiva i društva arhivskih radnika Bosne i Hercegovine, 1 (1961), 327-332. Howard, Douglas: ‘Genre and Myth in the Ottoman Advice for Kings Literature’, in Virginia Aksan and Daniel Goffman (eds), The Early Modern Ottomans: Remapping the Empire (Cambridge: CUP, 2007), 137–166. Imamović, Enver: Historija bosanske vojske [History of the Bosnian army] (Sarajevo: Art 7, 1999). Imamović, Mustafa: Historija Bošnjaka [History of the Bochniaks] (Sarajevo: Preporod, 1997). Imamović, Mustafa: Pravni položaj i unutrašnjo-politički razvitak Bosne i Hercegovine od 1878. do 1914. [Legal position and internal political development of Bosnia-Herzegovina 1878-1914] (Sarajevo: Bosanski kulturni centar, 1997 [2nd ed.]). İnalcık, Halil with Donald Quataert (eds): An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 2 volumes (Cambridge: CUP, 1994). İnalcık, Halil: ‘The Emergence of Big Farms Çiftliks: State, Landlords and Tenants’, in Jean-Louis Bacqué-Grammont and Paul Dumont (eds), Contributions à l’histoire économique et sociale de l’Empire ottoman (Leuwen/Paris: Peteers/Association pour le développement des études turques, 1983), 105–126 İslamoğlu, Huri: ‘Property as a Contested Domain. A Reevaluation of the Ottoman Land Code of 1858’, in Roger Owen (ed.), New Perspectives on Property and Land in the Middle East (Londres: Harvard University Press, 2000), 3–61. İslamoğlu-İnan, Huri and Çağlar Keyder: ‘Agenda for Ottoman History’, in Huri İslamoğlu-İnan (ed.), The Ottoman Empire and the World-Economy (New York/Paris: CUP/MSH, 1987), 42–62. Islamoğlu-İnan, Huri: ‘Modernities Compared. State Transformations and Constitutions of Property in the Qing and Ottoman Empires’, in Huri Islamoğlu-Inan and Peter C. Perdue (eds), Shared Histories of Modernity. China, India, and the Ottoman Empire (New Delhi: Routledge, 2009), 353–386. İslamoğlu-İnan, Huri: State and Peasant in the Ottoman Empire. Agrarian Power Relations and Regional Economic Development in Ottoman Anatolia During the Sixteenth Century (Leiden: Brill, 1994). Johansen, Baber: The Islamic Law on Land Tax and Rent. The Peasants’ Loss of Property Rights as Interpreted in the Hanafite Legal Literature of the Mamluk and Ottoman Periods (London/New York/Sydney: Croom Helm, 1988). Jorgens, Denise: ‘A Comparative Examination of the Provisions of the Ottoman Land Code and Khedives Sa´id´s Law of 1858’, in Roger Owen (ed), New Perspectives on Property and Land in the Middle East (Cambridge: Harward Center for Middle Eastern Studies, 2000), 93–119. Joseph, Sabrina: Islamic Law on Peasant Usufruct in Ottoman Syria, 17th to Early 19th Century (Leiden: Brill, 2012). Kafadar, Cemal: ‘The Question of Ottoman Decline’, Harvard Middle Eastern and Islamic Review, 4/1-2 (1997-1998), 30–75. Kamberović, Husnija: Begovski zemljišni posjedi u Bosni i Hercegovini od 1878. do 1918.godine [Landed estates of the beys in Bosnia-Herzegovina 1878-1918] (Zagreb/Sarajevo: HIP/Institut za istoriju, 2003). Kapidžić, Hamdija (ed.): Прилози за историју Босне и Херцеговине у XIX вијеку [Contributions to the history of Bosnia-Herzegovina during the nineteenth century] (Sarajevo: ND NR BiH, 1956). Karadžić, Vuk: Сабрана дела, т. 17: Етнографски списи [Complete works, t. 17: Ethnography] (Beograd: Prosveta, 1972). Karaula, Marijan (ed.): Pro populo. Život i djelo fra Lovre Karaule (1800.-1875.) [For the people. The life and works of fra Lovro Karaula (1800-1875)] (Sarajevo: Svjetlo riječi, 2000). Karpat, Kemal H.: ‘The Land Regime, Social Structure, and Modernization in the Ottoman Empire’, in William R. Polk and Richard L. Chambers (eds), Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East (Chicago/London: The University of Chicago Press, 1968), 69–90 — also in Kemal H. Karpat, Studies on Ottoman Social and Political History. Selected Articles and Essays (Leiden: Brill, 2002), 327–351. Kasumović, Fahd: ‘Osmanska agrarna politika i nadmetanje za zemlju u jugoistočnoj Evropi (analiza čiflukâ u Bosanskom sandžaku od uspostavljanja osmanske vlasti do početka 17. stoljeća)’ [Ottoman agrarian policy and competition for land possession in Southeast Europe (analysis of the çiftlik-s in the sandjak of Bosnia since the establishment of Ottoman government authorities until the beginning of the seventeenth century)], Anali Gazi Husrev-begove biblioteke, 35 (2014), 93–150. Kaya, Alp Yücel: ‘Des registres impériaux aux registres des feux fiscaux. Réflexions sur les registres fiscaux ottomans du XVe au XVIIIe siècle’, in Mireille Touzery (dir.), De l’estime au cadastre en Europe. L’époque moderne (Paris: Comité pour l’histoire économique et financière de la France, 2007), 265–307. Kaya, Alp Yücel: ‘On the Çiftlik Regulation in Tırhala in the Mid-Nineteenth Century. Economists, Pashas, Governors, Çiftlik-holders, Subaşıs, and Sharecroppers’, in Elias Kolovos (ed.), Ottoman Rural Societies and Economies (Rethymnon: Crete University Press, 2015), 333–380. Keyder, Çağlar and Faruk Tabak (eds): Landholding and Commercial Agriculture in the Middle East. Globalization, Revolution and Popular Culture (Albany: SUNY Press, 1991) (in Tur.: Osmanlı toprak Mülkiyeti ve ticari tarım, İstanbul, Türkiye Ekonomik ve Toplumsal Tarih Vakfı, 1998). Köksal, Yonca: ‘Land Reform in Northwestern Bulgaria During the Tanzimat Era’, in Ekrem Čaušević, Nenad Moačanin and Vjeran Kursar (eds), Perspectives on Ottoman Studies (Berlin: LIT Verlag, 2010), 455–462. Kornrumpf, Hans-Jürgen: ‘Einige osmanische Dokumente über Topal Osman Pascha in Bosnien 1861-1869’, Südost Forschungen, 51 (1992), 189–218. Kreševljaković, Hamdija: Izabrana djela [Selected works], 4 volumes (Sarajevo: Veselin Masleša, 1991). Laiou, Sophia: ‘Some Considerations Regarding Çiftlik Formation in the Western Thessaly, Sixteenth-Nineteenth Centuries’, in Elias Kolovos, Phokion Kotzageorgis, Sophia Laiou and Marinos Sariyanis (eds), The Ottoman Empire, the Balkans, the Greek Lands. Toward a Social and Economic History. Studies in Honor of John C. Alexander (Istanbul: The ISIS Press, 2007), 255–277. Lampe, John R. and Marvin R. Jackson: Balkan Economic History, 1550-1950. From Imperial Borderlands to Developing Nations (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982). Lamprakis, Dimitrios: ‘Çiftlik formation and transformation of land ownership in the kazas of Serfice, Çaharşenbe, and Eğri Bucak (1820-1850)’, Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association 7/1 (2020), 146–172. Lavić, Osman (ed.): Catalogue of the Arabic, Turkish, Persian & Bosnian Manuscripts in the Ghazi Husrev-Bey Library Sarajevo. Volume XIV (Londres/Sarajevo: Al-Furqan/El-Kalem, 2005). Lavić, Osman (ed.): Katalog arapskih, turskih, perzijskih i bosanskih rukopisa. Gazi Husrevbegova biblioteka u Sarajevu. Svezak deseti [Catalogue of the Arabic, Turkish, Persian & Bosnian Manuscripts in the Ghazi Husrev-Bey Library Sarajevo. Volume X] (Londres/Sarajevo: Al-Furqan/El-Kalem, 2002). Lavić, Osman (ed.): Katalog arapskih, turskih, perzijskih i bosanskih rukopisa. Gazi Husrevbegova biblioteka u Sarajevu. Svezak sedamnaesti [Catalogue of the Arabic, Turkish, Persian & Bosnian Manuscripts in the Ghazi Husrev-Bey Library Sarajevo. Volume XVII] (Londres/Sarajevo: Al-Furqan/El-Kalem, 2010). Lewis, Bernard: ‘Ottoman Observers of Ottoman Decline’, Islamic Studies, 1 (1962), 71–87. Liebesny, Herbert: The Law of the Near and Middle East. Readings, Cases, and Materials (Albany: SUNY Press, 1975). Loussararian, J.-Diran: L’histoire et la théorie de la propriété foncière dans le droit public ottoman, unpublished PhD dissertation (Paris: Université de Paris, 1912). Macauley, Melissa: ‘World Made Simple. Law and Property in the Ottoman and Qing Empires’, in Huri Islamoğlu-Inan and Peter C. Perdue (eds), Shared Histories of Modernity. China, India, and the Ottoman Empire (New Delhi: Routledge, 2009), 273–298. McGowan, Bruce: ‘The Study of Land and Agriculture in the Ottoman Provinces within the Context of an Expanding World Economy in the 17th and 18th Centuries’, International Journal of Turkish Studies, 1 (1984-1985), 57–63. McGowan, Bruce: Economic Life in Ottoman Europe. Taxation, Trade and the Struggle for Land, 1600-1800 (Cambridge/Paris: CUP/MSH, 1981). Minkov, Anton: ‘Ottoman Tapu Title Deeds in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. Origin, Typology and Diplomatics’, Islamic Law and Society, 7/1 (2000), 65–101. Mitrović, Pavle and Hamdija Kreševljaković (eds): Izvještaji italijanskog konzulata u Sarajevu (1863-1870 godine) [Reports of the Italian Consulate in Sarajevo (1863-1870)] (Sarajevo: ND NR BiH, 1958). Moačanin, Nenad: ‘Defterology and Mythology. Ottoman Bosnia up to the Tanzîmat’, International Journal of Turkish Studies, 10 (2004), 189–197. Moačanin, Nenad: Turska Hrvatska. Hrvati pod vlašću Osmanskog carstva do 1791. Preispitivanja [The Turkish Croatia. Croats under Ottoman rule until 1791. Researches] (Zagreb: Matica Hrvatska, 1999). Moreau, Odile: ‘Quelques aperçus sur le recrutement des soldats bosniaques au XIXème siècle (1826-1876)’, Ankara Üniversitesi Osmanlı Tarihi Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi Dergisi, 8 (1997), 183–204 (= ‘Les contingents balkaniques. Le recrutement des contingents bosniaques (1826-1876)’, Anatolia moderna, 7 (1997), 17–48; in Eng.: ‘The Recruitment of Bosnian Soldiers During the 19th Century (1826-1876)’, Islamic Studies, 36/2-3 (1997), 263-279; English contraction: ‘Bosnian Resistance to Conscription in the Nineteenth Century’, in Erik J. Zürcher (ed.), Arming the State: Military Conscription in the Middle East and Central Asia, 1775-1925 (New York: Bloomsbury Publishing, 1999), 129–133). Moustakas, Konstantinos: ‘Early Evidence on the Introduction of Timar in the Balkans and its Use as a Means of Incorporation. The pronoia of Laskaris’, Südost Forschungen, 68 (2009), 63–95. Mundy, Martha: ‘Ownership or Office ? A Debate in Islamic Hanafite Jurisprudence Over the Nature of the Military ‘Fief’, from the Mamluks to the Ottomans’, in Alain Pottage and Martha Mundy (eds), Law, Anthropology, and the Constitution of the Social. Making Persons and Things (Cambridge: CUP, 2004), 142–165. Mutafchieva, Vera P.: Agrarian Relations in the Ottoman Empire in the 15th and 16th Centuries (New York: Colombia University Press, 1988). Mutapčić, Edin: Agrarna reforma u BiH i njeno zakonodavstvo (1918.-1941.) [Agrarian reform in BiH and its legislation 1918-1941] (Gradačac: Biblioteka Alija Isaković, 2007). Nagata, Yuzo: ‘The Decline of the Ottoman Empire’s Doctrine of State Landownership. The Development of the Çiftlik Type of Landownership’, in Yuzo Nagata, Studies on the Social and Economic History of the Ottoman Empire (Manisa: Akademi Kitapevi, 2007), 133–139. Nikić, Andrija (ed.): Regesta Franjevačkog arhiva u Mostaru 1446-1862 [Regesta from the Franciscan archives in Mostar 1446-1862] (Mostar: Franjevačka knjižnica, 1984). Ninčić, Momčilo: Историја аграрно-правних односа српских тежака под Турцима. I. део [History of agrarian-legal relations of Serbian peasants under the Turks. Part I] (Beograd: Geca Kon, 1920). Ninčić, Momčilo: Питање о својини земље у Србоа под Турцима [The property of land by the Serbs under the Turks] (Beograd: Štamparija Dositije Obradović, 1913). Novaković, Stojan: ‘Стари босански закон о баштинама’ [An old Bosnian law on baştine], Bosanska vila, 7 (1892), 12, 181–184; 13, 199–201 Özok-Gündoğan, Nilay: ‘Ruling the Periphery, Governing the Land. The Making of the Modern Ottoman State in Kurdistan, 1840-70’, Comparative Studies od South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 34/1 (2014), 160–175. Padel, Wilhelm and Louis Steeg: Législation foncière ottomane (Paris: A. Pedone, 1904). Pamuk, Şevket: ‘Commodity Production for World-Markets and Relations of Production in Ottoman Agriculture, 1840-1913’, in Huri İslamoğlu-İnan (ed.), The Ottoman Empire and the World-Economy (New York/Paris: CUP/MSH, 1987), 178–202. Pašanović, Fikret: Bošnjak savjetuje sultana. Muhamed Prozorac i djelo Islamski način postizanja poretka [A Bochniak advises the Sultan. Muhamed el-Akhisari and his work Nizam ul-alem] (Sarajevo: Arka Press, 2012). Popara, Haso (ed.): Katalog arapskih, turskih, perzijskih i bosanskih rukopisa. Gazi Husrevbegova biblioteka u Sarajevu. Svezak deveti [Catalogue of the Arabic, Turkish, Persian & Bosnian Manuscripts in the Ghazi Husrev-Bey Library Sarajevo. Volume IX] (Londres/Sarajevo: Al-Furqan/El-Kalem, 2001). Popović, Vasilj: Аграрно питање у Босни и турски нереди за време реформног режима Абдул-Меџида (1839-1861) [Agrarian issue in Bosnia and Turkish riots during the reform regime of Abdul-Mecid] (Beograd: SAN, 1949). Quataert, Donald: The Ottoman Empire 1700-1922 (Cambridge: CUP, 2000). Rośkiewicz, Johann: Studien über Bosnien und die Herzegovina (Leipzig/Wien: F. A. Brockhaus, 1868). Salzmann, Ariel: ‘An Ancient Regime Revisited. “Privatization” and Political Economy in the Eighteenth-Century Ottoman Empire’, Politics & Society, 21/4 (1993), 393–423. Sammlung der für Bosnien und die Hercegovina erlassenen Gesetze, Verordnungen und Normalweiseungen, 3 volumes (Wien: k.-k. Hof- und Staatsdruckerei, 1880-1882). Séfériadès, Stylianos Prodromou: Le Régime immobilier en Turquie au point de vue du droit international (Paris: A. Rousseau, 1913). Shafir, Gershon: Land, Labor and the Origins of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict 1882-1914 (Cambridge: CUP, 1989). Skarić, Vladislav: ‘Из прошлости Босне и Херцеговине XIX вијека’ [Pages from the past of Bosnia-Herzegovina], Godišnjak Društva istoričara Bosne i Hercegovine 1 (1949), 7–41. Skarić, Vladislav: ‘Постанак и развитак кметства у Босни и Херцеговини’ [Genesis and development of kmetstvo in Bosnia-Herzegovina], Pregled (Sarajevo), 11 (1937), 7-8, 481–489. Skarić, Vladislav: ‘Турски аграрни законици за санџаке Босну и Херцеговину од год. 1047.’ [Agrarian Turkish Codes from 1047 for the sandjaks of Bosnia and Herzegovina], Glasnik Zemaljskog muzeja, 46 (1934), 2, 107–112. Sluglett, Peter and Marion Farouk-Sluglett: ‘The Application of the 1858 Land Code in Greater Syria. Some Preliminary Observations’, in Tarif Khalidi (ed.), Land Tenure and Social Transformation in the Middle East (Beirut: American University of Beirut, 1984), 409–421. Smajić (Ibrahimović), Ramiza: ‘Struktura vojničke klase u XV i početkom XVI vijeka s posebnim osvrtom na širenje islama u Bosni’ [Military class structure in the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, with a special emphasis on the spread of Islam in Bosnia], Prilozi za orijentalnu filologiju, 41 (1991), 269–282. Smajić, Ramiza: ‘Zakon o timarima iz 1869. godine’ [Law on timars from 1869], Hercegovina, 11-12 (2000), 99–103. Solomonovich, Nadav and Ruth Kark: ‘Land Privatization in Nineteenth-century Ottoman Palestine’, Islamic Law and Society 22/3 (2015), 221–252. Soyudoğan, Muhsin: ‘Reassessing the Timar System. The Case Study of Vidin (1455-1693)’, unpublished PhD dissertation (Ankara: Bilkent üniversitesi, 2012). Spaić, Vojislav: ‘Zemljišnoknjižni sistem u Bosni i Hercegovini za vrijeme Turaka’ [Land registry system in Bosnia and Herzegovina at the time of the Turks], Istorisko-pravni zbornik, 2/3-4 (1950), 15–37. Stojančević, Vladimir: Јужнословенски народи у османском царству од једренског мира 1829. до париског конгреса 1856. године [South Slavic nations in the Ottoman Empire from the Edirne Peace in 1829 until the Paris Congress in 1856] (Beograd: PTT, 1971). Sućeska, Avdo: ‘O naslijeđivanju odžakluk timara u Bosni i Hercegovini’ [Inheritance of ocaklık timars in Bosnia and Herzegovina], Godišnjak Pravnog fakulteta u Sarajevu, 15 (1967), 503–516. Sućeska, Avdo: ‘Popis čifluka u rogatičkom kadiluku iz 1835. godine’ [Çiftlik list from 1835 for the Rogatica kadilik], Prilozi za orijentalnu filologiju, 14-15 (1964), 189–271. Sućeska, Avdo: ‘Promjene u sistemu izvanrednog oporezivanja u Turskoj u XVII i XVIII vijeku i pojava nameta tekâlif-i šâkka’ [Changes in the system of extraordinary taxation in Turkey in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and genesis of tekâlif-i šâkka’ tax], Prilozi za orijentalnu filologiju, 10-11 (1961), 75–112. Sućeska, Avdo: ‘Prvi pokušaj regulisanja agrarnih odnosa u Bosni i Hercegovini u XIX stoljeću’ [A first attempt to regulate agrarian relations in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the XIX century], Godišnjak Pravnog fakulteta Univerziteta u Sarajevu, 14 (1966), 249–268. Šabotić, Izet: Agrarne prilike u Bosanskom ejaletu (1839.-1878.) [The agrarian question in the Bosnian eyalet 1839-1878] (Tuzla: Arhiv TK, 2013). Šehić, Zijad: ‘Prilog prošlosti Hercegovine XIX stoljeća. Sjećanja Murad Effendije iz Hercegovine’ [Herzegovina during the XIX century: Memories of Hersekli Murad Effendi], Hercegovina, 11-12 (2000), 107–124. Škegro, Ante: ‘Iseljavanje iz Dalmacije i zapadne Hercegovine u Uskoplje tijekom 19. i prvoj polovici 20. st.’ [Emigration from Dalmatia and Western Herzegovina to Uskoplje during the nineteenth and the first half of the twentieth century.], Hercegovina, 24 (2010), 21–36. Šljivo, Galib: Bosna i Hercegovina 1788-1812 [Bosnia-Herzegovina 1788-1812] (Banja Luka: Institut za istoriju, 1992). Šljivo, Galib: Bosna i Hercegovina 1861.-1869. [Bosnia-Herzegovina 1861-1869] (Tešanj: Planjax, 2005). Šljivo, Galib: Omer-paša Latas u Bosni i Hercegovini 1850-1852. [Bosnia-Herzegovina 1850-1852] (Sarajevo: Svjetlost, 1977). Tepić, Ibrahim: ‘Osmanska vojska i policija u bosanskom vilajetu od 50-ih do 70-ih godina XIX vijeka’ [Ottoman army and police in the Bosnian vilayet in the 1850s and 1870s], Godišnjak Društva istoričara BiH, 37 (1986), 91–116. Tezcan, Baki: The Second Ottoman Empire. Political and Social Transformation in the Early Modern World (New York: CUP, 2010). The Ottoman Land Code. Translated from the Turkish by F. Ongley (Londres: William Clowes and Sons, 1892). Toksöz, Meltem: ‘Modernisation in the Ottoman Empire. The 1858 Land Code and Property Regimes from a Regional Perspective’, in Elias Kolovos (ed.), Ottoman Rural Societies and Economies (Rethymnon: Crete University Press, 2015), 381–396. Truhelka, Ćiro: ‘Stari turski agrarni zakonik za Bosnu’ [An old Turkish agrarian code for Bosnia], Glasnik Zemaljskog muzeja 28 (1916), 427–475. Truhelka, Ćiro: Historička podloga agrarnog pitanja u Bosni [Historical background of the agrarian question in Bosnia] (Sarajevo: Zemaljska štamparija, 1915). Türkzade, Mehmed Ziyaeddin: Mükemmel ve muvazzah şerhi kanun-u arazi, (Istanbul: Kasbar Matbassi, 1311 [1893/1894]) (in BCS: Asim Škaljić, Upotpunjeni i razjašnjeni komentar Gruntovnog zakona (s.l.: s.n., 1903)). Tute, R. C.: The Ottoman Land Laws, with a Commentary on the Ottoman Land Code of 7th Ramadan 1274 (Jerusalem: Greek Conv. Press, 1927). Ubicini, Abdolonyme et Abel Pavet de Courteille: État présent de l'Empire ottoman (Paris: J. Dumaine, 1876). Vazzidi, Yanko Effendi: ‘La propriété immobilière en Turquie et l’article 1737 du Medjellé’, Revue de droit international et de législation comparée, 32 (1900), 300–315. Veinstein, Gilles: ‘On the Çiftlik Debate’, in Çağlar Keyder and Faruk Tabak (eds), Landholding and Commercial Agriculture in the Middle East (Albany: State University of New York, 1991), 35–53. Velagić, Adnan: ‘Marksističko poimanje historije u djelima Branislava Đurđeva’ [The Marxist conception of history in the works of Branislav Đurđev], in Dževad Juzbašić (ed.), Naučno djelo akademika Branislava Đurđeva (Sarajevo: ANUBiH, 2010), 197–207. Warriner, Doreen: ‘Land Tenure in the Fertile Crescent’, in Charles Issawi (ed.), The Economic History of the Middle East (Chicago/London: The University of Chicago Press, 1966), 71–78. Zarinebaf-Shahr, Fariba: ‘Soldiers Into Tax-Farmers and Re‘aya Into Sharecroppers: The Ottoman Morea in the Early Modern Period’, in Fariba Zarinebaf-Shahr, John Bennet and Jack L. Davis (eds.), A Historical and Economic Geography of Ottoman Greece. The Southwestern Morea in the 18th Century (Princeton: American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 2005), 9–48.