Yavuz YILMAZ, Çiçek HOCAOĞLU, Ali ERDOĞAN

COVID-19 ve Damgalanma

Damgalanma, olumsuz algılanan özelliklerden kaynaklanan sosyal reddedilme olarak tanımlanmıştır. Toplumları etkisi altına alan geniş çaplı salgınlarda damgalanma sık yaşanmaktadır. İçinde bulunduğumuz COVID-19 pandemisi de ayrımcılığa ve damgalayıcı tutumlara neden olmaktadır. Özellikle hastalığa yakalananlar, onların yakınları, sağlık çalışanları, Asyalılar damgalanmaya daha fazla maruz kalabilmektedirler. Bunun sonucunda umutsuzluk, karamsarlık, yalnızlık hissi, kaygı, endişe, kendine ve çevresine yönelik öfke ve zarar verici davranışlar ortaya çıkabilmektedir. Bu gruplardaki kişilerin ruhsal bozukluklar açısından daha kırılgan hale gelmesine neden olmaktadır. Damgalanmanın engellenmesi ve azaltılmasına yönelik önlemlerin alınması, müdahalelerin planlanması bu sorunların önlenmesi için büyük önem taşımaktadır.

COVID-19 and Stigma

Stigma is defined as social rejection resulting from negatively perceived characteristics. Stigmatization is common in pandemics that affect societies. The COVID-19 pandemic, which affects the whole world, also causes discrimination and stigmatization. Especially those who are sick and their relatives, healthcare professionals and some ethnic groups may be more exposed to stigma. Infodemia, defined as excessive misinformation circulation, is an important risk factor for stigmatization. As a result of stigma, psychiatric consequences such as hopelessness, pessimism, loneliness, and anxiety can occur. Stigmatized people become more susceptible to mental disorders. This may cause the effects of the pandemic to last for many years. In the pandemic period, it is very important to recognize stigmatization and to take measures to prevent stigmatization and to plan interventions.

PDF

___

1. Bagcchi S. Stigma during the COVID-19 pandemic. Lancet Infect Dis 2020; 7: 782.
2. Person B, Sy F, Holton K, Govert B, Liang A. Fear and stigma: the epidemic within the SARS outbreak. Emerg Infect Dis. 2004; 2: 358-63.
3. Bruns DP, Kraguljac NV, Bruns TR. COVID-19: Facts, Cultural Considerations, and Risk of Stigmatization. J Transcult Nurs 2020; 4: 326-32.
4. Paananen J, Lindholm C, Stevanovic M, Weiste E. Tensions and Paradoxes of Stigma: Discussing Stigma in Mental Health Rehabilitation. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020; 16: 5943. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC74 59444/
5. Goffman, E., Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall; 1963.
6. Link BG, Phelan JC. Conceptualizing stigma. Annual review of Sociology, 2001;27: 363-85. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.363.
7. Phelan JC, Link BG, Dovidio JF. Stigma and prejudice: one animal or two? Soc Sci Med 2008;3: 358-67.
8. Kurzban R, Leary MR, Evolutionary origins of stigmatization: the functions of social exclusion. Psychol Bull 2001;2: 187-208.
9. Barış Yİ. Dünyada Tüberküloz'un Tarihi. Konuralp Tıp Dergisi 2010;2: 1-4.
10. Gary FA. Stigma: barrier to mental health care among ethnic minorities. Issues Ment Health Nurs 2005;10: 979-99.
11. Oran NT, Şenuzun F. Toplumda kırılması gereken bir zincir: HIV/AIDS stigması ve baş etme stratejileri. Uluslararası İnsan Bilimleri Dergisi, 2008;1: 1-16.
12. Alp Ü. Şizofreni hastası neden damgalanır? Klinik Psikiyatri 2003;1: 3-8.
13. Türk Psikiyatri Derneği. COVID-19 ve damgalama. 2020. https://www. psikiyatri.org.tr/uploadFiles/243202019327- Damgalanma COVID. pdf.
14. Kadıoğlu M, Hotun Şahin N. Stigmatizasyon (damgalama) ve kadın. Sağlık ve Toplum 2015;3: 3-9.
15. Bitusikova, A., COVID-19 and Funeral-byZoom. Edited by Giuliana B. Prato, 2020. https://www.gov.scot/publications/coronavirusCOVID-19-guidance-for-funeralservices/pages/funeral-service/
16. Dorn AV, Cooney RE, Sabin ML. COVID19 exacerbating inequalities in the US. Lancet 2020;395(10232):1243-44. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PI IS0140-6736(20)30893-X/fulltext
17. Rizvi Jafree S, Naqi SA. Significant other family members and their experiences of COVID19 in Pakistan: A qualitative study with implications for social policy. Stigma Health 2020;4:. 380.
18. Aacharya, R.P. and A. Shah, Ethical dimensions of stigma and discrimination in Nepal during COVID-19 pandemic. Ethics Med Public Health, 2020;14: 100536. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC72 50747/ doi: https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jemep.2020.100536.
19. Taylor S, Landry CA, Rachor GS, Paluszek MM, Asmundson GJG. Fear and avoidance of healthcare workers: An important, underrecognized form of stigmatization during the COVID-19 pandemic. J Anxiety Disord. 2020; 75: 102289 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC74 34636/ doi: https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102289.
20. Mostafa A, Sabry W, Mostafa NS. COVID19-related stigmatization among a sample of Egyptian healthcare workers. PLoS One. 2020;12: e0244172.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl es/PMC7748273/ doi: https://doi.org/ 10.1371 /journal.pone.0244172.
21. Al Sulais E, Mosli M, AlAmeel T. The psychological impact of COVID-19 pandemic on physicians in Saudi Arabia: A cross-sectional study. Saudi J Gastroenterol 2020 ;5: 249-55.
22. Lai J, Ma S, Wang Y, Cai Z, Hu J, Wei N ve diğerleri. Factors Associated With Mental Health Outcomes Among Health Care Workers Exposed to Coronavirus Disease 2019. JAMA Netw Open 2020 ;3:e203976 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen /fullarticle/2763229.
23. Fischer LS, Mansergh G, Lynch J, Santibanez S. Addressing Disease-Related Stigma During Infectious Disease Outbreaks. Disaster Med Public Health Prep 2019; 5-6: 989-94.
24. Brooks SK, Webster RK, Smith LE, Woodland L, Wessely S, Greenberg N ve diğerleri. The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: rapid review of the evidence. Lancet 2020 ;395(10227):912-20.
25. Y, Yao L, Wei T, Tian F, Jin DY, Chen L ve diğerleri. Presumed Asymptomatic Carrier Transmission of COVID-19. JAMA 2020;14: 1406-7.
26. Muschick, P. (2020, March 13). Coronavirus and allergies: Don’t sneeze-shame. The Morning Call. . https://www.mcall.com/opinion/mc-opicoronavirus-allegies-sneeze-shaming-muschick20200313-x7s3bvgdxncs5musjofhsjn5qq-story.html
27. Fan L, Yu H, Yin Z. Stigmatization in social media: Documenting and analyzing hate speech for COVID-19 on Twitter. Proc Assoc Inf Sci Technol 2020; 1: e313. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC76 45876/ doi: https://doi.org/ 10.1002/pra2.313.
28. World Health Organization. Coronavirus disease (COVID19) pandemic. 2020. https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novelcoronavirus-2019.
29. AAPF. The Chinese Exclusion Act. 2020. https://aapf.org/chinese-exclusion-act.
30. Whitehead D. (2020, February 12). ‘You deserve the coronavirus’: Chinese people in UK abused over outbreak. Sky News. https://news.sky.com/story/coronavirus-chinesepeople-face-abuse-in-the-street-over-outbreak11931779.
31. TaylorS. The psychology of pandemics: Preparing for the next global outbreak of infectious disease. 2019: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
32. Ren SY, Gao RD, Chen YL. Fear can be more harmful than the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 in controlling the corona virus disease 2019 epidemic. World J Clin Cases 2020; 4: 652-57.
33. World Health Organization. Munich Security Conference. 15 February 2020. https://www.who.int/directorgeneral/speeches/detail/munich-securityconference.
34. World Health Organization. Subject in Focus: Developing trans-disciplinary science: infodemiology, the science behind infodemic management. 7 July 2020. https://www.who.int/docs/defaultsource/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200707- COVID-19-sitrep-169.pdf?sfvrsn=c6c69c88_2.
35. Ransing R, Ramalho R, de Filippis R, Ojeahere MI, Karaliuniene R, Orsolini L ve diğerleri. Infectious disease outbreak related stigma and discrimination during the COVID-19 pandemic: Drivers, facilitators, manifestations, and outcomes across the world. Brain Behav Immun 2020;89:555-58.
36. Horton R. Offline: Managing the COVID19 vaccine infodemic. Lancet. 2020; 396(10261): 1474.
37. Oxford English dictionary online. Mount Royal College Lib., Calgary, 2004.;14:e0135203. 38. Roberto KJ, Johnson AF, Rauhaus BM, Stigmatization and prejudice during the COVID-19 pandemic. Administrative Theory & Praxis 2020;3: 364-78.
39. Scheimer D, Chakrabarti M. Asian American discrimination and the coronavirus crisis. 2020, April 14. https://www.wbur.org/onpoint/2020/04/14/georgetakei-asian-american-discrimination-coronavirus
40. Fottrell Q.). ‘No Chinese allowed’: Racism and fear are now spreading along with the coronavirus. 2020, February 3. https://www.marketwatch.com/story/no-chineseallowed-racism-and-fear-are-now-spreading-alongwith-the-coronavirus-2020-01-29
41. He J, He L, Zhou W, Nie X, He M. Discrimination and Social Exclusion in the Outbreak of COVID-19. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020; 8: 2933. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC72 15298/ doi: https://doi.org/ 10.3390/ijerph17082933.
42. Kasulis K.Coronavirus brings out antiChinese sentiment in South Korea. Aljazeera. 2020, February 21. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/2/21/coronav irus-brings-out-anti-chinese-sentiment-in-southkorea
43. Iyengar R. If you want to travel next year, you may need a vaccine passport. CNN Business. 2020, December 8. https://edition.cnn.com/2020/12/27/tech/coronaviru s-vaccine-passport-apps/index.html
44. Hocaoğlu Ç, Erdoğan A. COVID-19 ve intihar. Coşar B, editör. Psikiyatri ve COVID-19. 1. Baskı. Ankara: Türkiye Klinikleri; 2020:35- 42.
45. Khazem LR, Anestis MD, Gratz KL, Tull MT, Bryan CJ. Examining the role of stigma and disability-related factors in suicide risk through thelens of the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide. J Psychiatr Res 2020 :S0022-3956(20)31063-3. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/p ii/S0022395620310633?via%3 Dihub doi: https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.11.007.
46. Banerjee D, Kosagisharaf JR, Sathyanarayana Rao TS. 'The dual pandemic' of suicide and COVID-19: A biopsychosocial narrative of risks and prevention. Psychiatry Res 2021; 295:113577. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S 0165178120332388?via%3Dihub doi: https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113577.
47. Peprah P, Gyasi RM. Stigma and COVID19 crisis: A wake-up call. Int J Health Plann Manage 2021; 1:215-18..
48. Agyemang-Duah W, Morgan AK, Oduro Appiah J, Peprah P, Fordjour AA. Re-integrating Older Adults Who Have Recovered from the Novel Coronavirus into Society in the Context of Stigmatization: Lessons for Health and Social Actors in Ghana. J Gerontol Soc Work 2020;6- 7:691-93.
49. Pinto S, Soares J, Silva A, Curral R, Coelho R. COVID-19 Suicide Survivors-A Hidden Grieving Population. Front Psychiatry. 2020; 11: 626807. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC77 79552/ doi: https://doi.org/ 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.626807.