Convergences and divergences between the European Union and Turkey on the international stage: A case study on sub-Saharan Africa

Convergences and divergences between the European Union and Turkey on the international stage: A case study on sub-Saharan Africa

Since the early years of the European integration, the African continent has always occupied an important place on the political agenda of the European Union. Following the end of the Cold War and especially in the early 2000s, the European Union-Africa relations, which were mostly based on the development cooperation, started to gain momentum. In a similar vein, Turkey, which is still in the waiting room of the European Union, has begun to diversify its relations with the different regions of the world in the recent years. It is also sub-Saharan Africa that largely attracts the interest of the Turkish political leaders. The objective of this study is to understand to what extent the policies and strategies of the European Union and Turkey with regard to sub-Saharan Africa are convergent. This research question offers an analysis regarding Turkey’s alignment with the Common Foreign and Security Policy of the European Union within the framework of Chapter 31 of the acquis communautaire. Yet it essentially aims to determine the common points and the differences between the actions of these two important actors vis-à-vis sub-Saharan Africa. Based on this comparative approach that covers various areas such as development cooperation, commercial preferences, the role of democratic values and human rights, and finally the efforts aimed at the maintenance of regional peace and security, this study concludes that the policies of these two actors are to a large extent convergent.

___

  • Africa Business Life. (2012). Afrika’da Yatırım Fırsatları. Consulté le 2 décembre 2022, http://www.africanbusinesslife.com/afrika%27da-yatirim-firsatlari,ID_248.html#.VT7SgCHtmko
  • Anadolu Agency. (2014). La Turquie a une image très positive dans l’ensemble de l’Afrique. Consulté le 28 novembre 2022, https://www.aa.com.tr/fr/turquie/-la-turquie-a-une-image-très-positive-dans-l-ensemble-de-l-afrique-/102894
  • Anadolu Ajansı. (2022a). Afrika açılımı Türkiye'nin kıtayla ticaret hacmini 45 milyar dolar seviyesine çıkardı. Consulté le 22 novembre 2022, https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/dunya/afrika-acilimi-turkiyenin-kitayla-ticaret-hacmini-45-milyar-dolar-seviyesine-cikardi/2698819
  • Anadolu Ajansı. (2022b). Afrika'nın savunmasında yükselen güç: Türkiye. Consulté le 1 décembre 2022, https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/analiz/afrikanin-savunmasinda-yukselen-guc-turkiye/2597008
  • Angey, G. (2014). La recomposition de la politique étrangère turque en Afrique subsaharienne : Entre diplomatie publique et acteurs privés. Notes de l’Ifri.
  • BBC Türkçe. (2009). Türkiye’ye El-Beşir Notası. Consulté le 29 novembre 2022, https://www.bbc.com/turkce/haberler/2009/11/091106_eusudanturkey
  • Berber, M. (2013). Ankara Devreye Girdi Afrika’nın Sorunu Çözüldü. Sabah, Consulté le 22 novembre 2022, https://www.sabah.com.tr/gundem/2013/04/14/ankara-devreye-girdi-afrikanin-sorunu-cozuldu
  • Bingöl, O. (2013). Somali’de Barış ve Kalkınma Sürecinde Türkiye’nin Rolü. Akademik Bakış, vol.7, no.13, 81-106. Cebeci, M. (2012). NATO, AB ve Türkiye Açmazı : OGSP Açmazı. Marmara Avrupa Çalışmaları Dergisi, vol.20, n°2, 95-120.
  • Commission des Communautés européennes. (2015). €30.5 billion worth of EU development cooperation to come on stream following entry into force of 11th EDF. Déclaration du Haut-Représentant, Bruxelles.
  • Conseil de l’Union européenne. (2012). Cadre stratégique de l'UE en matière de droits de l'homme et de démocratie.
  • Conseil de l’Union européenne. (2012). Principaux aspects et choix fondamentaux de la PESC (point 43 (section G) de l'accord interinstitutionnel du 17 mai 2006) – 2012 - Rapport annuel de la Haute Représentante de l'Union pour les affaires étrangères et la politique de sécurité au Parlement européen.
  • Conseil de l’Union européenne. (2020). Sur la voie d'un partenariat approfondi et renforcé, qui soit à la hauteur des aspirations européennes et africaines: Le Conseil adopte des conclusions sur l'Afrique. Consulté le 30 novembre 2022, https://www.consilium.europa.eu/fr/press/press-releases/2020/06/30/on-the-path-to-a-deeper-and-stronger-partnership-living-up-to-the-european-and-african-aspirations-council-adopts-conclusions-on-africa/
  • Déclaration de Beijing. (2004). Forum sur la Coopération sino-africaine.
  • Déclaration d'Istanbul sur le partenariat Afrique-Turquie. (2008). Premier Sommet de la Coopération turco-africaine.
  • Déclaration du Sommet Afrique-Turquie : Un nouveau modèle de partenariat pour le renforcement du développement durable et de l'intégration de l'Afrique. (2014). Deuxième Sommet de la Coopération turco-africaine.
  • Del Biondo, K. (2011). EU Aid Conditionality in ACP Countries: Explaining Inconsistency in EU Sanctions Practice. Journal of Contemporary European Research, vol.7, no.3, 380-395.
  • Dünya. (2009). Onlar ne karışırmış ki. Consulté le 1 décembre 2022, https://www.dunya.com/gundem/onlar-ne-karisirmis-ki-haberi-95847
  • Eurostat. (2022). Africa-EU - international trade in goods statistics. Consulté le 24 novembre 2022, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Africa-EU_-_international_trade_in_goods_statistics
  • Habertürk. (2011). 48 ülke alarm veriyor. Consulté le 1 décembre 2022, https://www.haberturk.com/dunya/haber/628719-48-ulke-alarm-veriyor
  • Hafid, H. & Echkoundi, M. (2015). Les émergents en Afrique : vers quelles nouvelles formes de partenariat ?. Le Matin. Consulté le 19 novembre 2022, https://lematin.ma/journal/2015/les-emergents-en-afrique-vers-quelles-nouvelles-formes-de-partenariat/215860.html
  • Haşimi, C. (2014). Turkey’s Humanitarian Diplomacy and Development Cooperation. Insight Turkey, vol.16, no.1, 127-145.
  • Hazar, N. (2011). Küreselleşme Sürecinde Afrika ve Türkiye – Afrika İlişkileri. Ankara, USAK Yayınları.
  • Holland, M. & Doidge, M. (2012). Development Policy of the European Union, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Hürriyet. (2008). Zirveyi değil onu haber yaptılar. Consulté le 5 décembre 2022, https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/zirveyi-degil-onu-haber-yaptilar-9693154
  • Hürriyet. (2009). Müslüman soykırım yapamaz. Consulté le 4 décembre 2022, https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/musluman-soykirim-yapamaz-12893412
  • Hürriyet. (2011). Günde 1.2 doların altında olan var, ‘En Az Gelişmiş’lere yılda 200 milyon dolar göndereceğiz. Consulté le 2 décembre 2022, https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/ekonomi/gunde-1-2-dolarin-altinda-olan-var-en-az-gelismis-lere-yilda-200-milyon-dolar-gonderecegiz-17747924
  • IMF. (s.d.). Direction of Trade Statistics. Consulté le 10 novembre 2022, http://elibrary-data.imf.org/ViewData.aspx?qb=3c57364129a7e7c6c766e22ef8923a04
  • International Crisis Group. (2012). Assessing Turkey’s Role in Somalia. Africa Briefing N°92.
  • Karagül, S. & İ. Arslan. (2013). Türkiye’nin Afrika Açılım Politikası : Tarihsel Arka Plan, Stratejik Ortaklık ve Geleceği. Uluslararası Hukuk ve Politika, vol.9, n°35, 21-55.
  • Kaya, K. & Warner, J. (2012). Turkey and Africa: A Rising Military Partnership?. Foreign Military Studies Office.
  • Khakee, A. (2007). EU Democracy Promotion in Nigeria: Between Realpolitik and Idealism. FRIDE, Working Paper 47.
  • Mahmoud, H. (2013). The Future of Governance in Somalia. Discours, Center for Strategic and International Studies, Washington.
  • Mhango, Y. (2012). Renaissance Capital on SSA’s Changing Export Patterns. Ratio Magazine. Consulté le 6 novembre 2022, http://www.ratio-magazine.com
  • Milliyet. (2010). Türkiye’den Darfur’a 70 milyon dolar. Consulté le 2 décembre 2022, https://www.milliyet.com.tr/gundem/turkiye-den-darfur-a-70-milyon-dolar-1214557
  • NATO. (2022). Opérations de lutte contre la piraterie. Consulté le 19 décembre 2022, https://www.nato.int/cps/fr/natolive/topics_48815.htm
  • OECD. (2021). ODA to Africa. Consulté le 4 décembre 2022, https://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-topics/Africa-Development-Aid-at-a-Glance.pdf
  • Orakçı, S. (2012). Turkey and the Horn of Africa: Emerging Interests and Relations. Chatham House, Africa Meeting Summary.
  • Özkan, M. (2014). Doğu Afrika Jeopolitiği ve Türkiye’nin Somali Politikası. SETA Yayınları 40.
  • Rudincova, K. (2014). New player on the scene : Turkish engagement in Africa. Bulletin of Geography: Socio-economic Series, n°25.
  • Terpan, F. (2009). La Turquie et la politique étrangère et de sécurité commune de l’Union européenne. Politique européenne, vol.3, n°29, 83-102.
  • TİKA. (2021). Türkiye Kalkınma Yardımları Raporu 2020.
  • Union africaine. (2020). Statistiques du commerce international africain.
  • Union européenne. (2012). Versions consolidées du Traité sur l'Union européenne et du Traité sur le fonctionnement de l'Union européenne du 13 décembre 2007. Journal officiel de l’Union européenne, C326.
  • Union européenne. (2014). 2 Unions, 1 Vision. Luxembourg.
  • Üçüncü Türkiye-Afrika Ortaklık Zirvesi Bildirisi. (2021). Birlikte Kalkınma ve Refah için Güçlendirilmiş Ortaklık.
  • Vines, A. & Soliman A. (2014). The Horn of Africa: Transnational and Trans-Regional Dynamics in Europe’s Broader Neighbourhood. S. Gestöhl & E. Lannon (dir.), The Neighbours of the European Union’s Neighbours: Diplomatic and Geopolitical Dimensions beyond the European Neighbourhood Policy. London, Ashgate, 67-95.
  • Yégavian, T. (2021). L’Afrique de l’Ouest, ventre mou du narcoterrorisme. Conflits. Consulté le 30 janvier 2023 https://www.revueconflits.com/lafrique-de-louest-ventre-mou-du-narcoterrorisme-tigrane-yegavian/ Zimelis, A. (2011). Conditionality and the EU–ACP Partnership: A Misguided Approach to Development?. Australian Journal of Political Science, vol.46, 389-406.