Turkey in Africa: Lessons in Political Economy
Turkey in Africa: Lessons in Political Economy
Turkey’s relatively recent engagement with sub-Saharan Africa has been the subject of debate among scholars and policymakers. Various attempts have been made to answer questions such as “Why Africa?” and “Why now?”, but these have largely ignored two key variables explaining Turkey’s foray: structural/political economy factors within Turkey and within various African states; and African reactions to Turkey’s engagement. Using a comparative approach and by exploring the African side of the equation as well as deconstructing the contours of Turkey’s engagement with Kenya and Somalia, I argue that Turkey’s commitment of resources to Africa has been positively shaped by six key factors. These are the timing of Ankara’s initial engagement; the capacity for risk of the Turkish government and businesses; Turkish products and expertise; the projection of Turkish ‘soft power’; generally positive or unformed views of Turkey in Africa given its lack of imperial baggage; and Turkey’s highly coordinated and unilateral approach to engagement with African states and leaders, which generally eschews entanglements with international organisations or other alliances. These factors are crucial to understanding Turkey’s nascent successes in sub-Saharan Africa, but certain political, economic and social factors – if left unaddressed – could spoil what currently seems a mutually beneficial engagement. Should Turkey positively address these deficiencies and better understand Africa and Africans in the process, it could become an indispensable partner, not only for Kenya and Somalia, but potentially for much of eastern and southern Africa
___
- [1] Adnan, M. (2014). Foreign policy and domestic constraints: A
conceptual account. South Asian Studies: A Research Journal
of South Asian Studies, 29(2), 657-675.
- [2] Alden, C., & Barber, L. (2015). EU-China-Africa and the
challenges of African development. In J. Wouters, J. C.
Defraigne, & M. Burnay (Eds.), China, the European Union and
the developing world: A triangular relationship. Cheltenham,
UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.
- [3] Ali, A. (2011). Turkey’s foray into Africa: A new humanitarian
power? Insight Turkey, 13(4), 65-73.
- [4] Alves, A. C. (2013). China’s ‘win-win’ cooperation: Unpacking
the impact of infrastructure-for-resources deals in Africa. South African Journal of International Affairs, 20(2), 207-226.
- [5] Ankomah, B. (2016, December 20). Turkey and Africa pledge
co-operation. New African. Retrieved from http://
newafricanmagazine.com/turkey-africa-pledge-co-operation/.
- [6] Bingöl, O. (2013). Somali’de barış ve kalkınma sürecinde
Türkiye’nin rolü. Gazi Akademik Bakış Dergisi, 7(13), 81-106.
- [7] Bown, C. P. (2014). Trade policy flexibilities and Turkey:
Tariffs, anti-dumping, safeguards and WTO dispute settlement.
World Econ., 37(2), 193-218.
- [8] Bueno de Mesquita, B., & Smith, A. (2012). Domestic
explanations of international relations. Annual Review of Political
Science, 15, 161-181.
- [9] Camacho, P. R., Çelik, A., Sezgin, E., & Tekinbaş, M. R. (2016).
Soft power: The Turkish effort in Somalia. The GLOBAL:
A Journal of Policy and Strategy, 1(2), 71-90.
- [10] Cannon, B. J. (2016a). Deconstructing Turkey’s efforts in
Somalia. Bildhaan: An International Journal of Somali Studies,
16(14), 98-123.
- [11] Cannon, B. J. (2016b). Turkey in Kenya and Kenya in
Turkey: Alternatives to the East/West paradigm in diplomacy,
trade and security. African Journal of Political Science and
International Relations, 10(5), 56-65.
- [12] Çağaptay, S. (2013). Defining Turkish power: Turkey as a
rising power embedded in the Western international system.
Turkish Studies, 14(4), 797-811.
- [13] Daly, J. C. (2008). Turkey courts Africa. Eurasia Daily Monitor,
5(183). Retrieved from https://jamestown.org/program/turkeycourts-africa/.
- [14] Farah, I., & Handa, S. (2016). Exploring post-conflict
reconstruction in Somalia: Pulling apart or pulling together?
Development, 58(1), 112-116.
- [15] Görener, A. Ş., & Ucal, M. Ş. (2011). The personality and
leadership style of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan: Implications for
Turkish foreign policy. Turkish Studies, 12(3), 357-381.
- [16] Gullo, M. T. (2012). Turkey’s Somalia adventure: The quest
for soft power and regional recognition. Centre for Policy
Analysis and Research on Turkey (ResearchTurkey). Retrieved
from http://researchturkey.org/?p=1226.
- [17] Harper, M. (2013). Somalia: Whose country is it, anyway?
The Fletcher Forum of World Affairs, 37, 161-166.
- [18] Harte, J. (2012). Turkey shocks Africa. World Policy Journal,
29(4), 27-38.
- [19] Hearn, S., & Zimmerman, T. (2014). A window of opportunity for
Somalia: Will external actors’ peacebuilding frameworks help
or hinder the effort? New York: Center on International
Cooperation, New York University.
- [20] Heaton, L. (2012, April 24). Saving Somalia. Foreign Policy.
Retrieved from http://foreignpolicy.com/2012/04/24/savingsomalia/.
- [21] International Crisis Group (2012). Assessing Turkey’s role in
Somalia (Policy Briefing, Africa Briefing, No. 92).
Istanbul: International Crisis Group.
- [22] İçi para dolu bir kutu da Somali’den çıktı. (2014, February 14).
Hürriyet. Retrieved from hurriyet.com.tr/dunya/25808376.asp.
- [23] Kavaz, I. (2016, December 25). Renewable energy is key
for Turkey’s 2023 agenda. The New Turkey. Retrieved from http://thenewturkey.org/renewable-energy-is-key-for-turkeys2023-agenda/.
- [24] Knodell, K. (2016, January 13). The Turkish army is going
to Somalia. War is Boring. Retrieved from https://warisboring.
com/the-turkish-army-is-going-to-somalia-404cef31739e#.
cbgjlrhkc.
- [25] Korkut, U., & Civelekoğlu, I. (2012). Becoming a regional power
while pursuing material gains. International Journal: Canada’s
Journal of Global Policy Analysis, 68(1), 187 -203.
- [26] Kubicek, P., Dal, E. P., & Oğuzlu, H. T. (Eds.). (2016). Turkey’s
rise as an emerging power. New York: Routledge.
- [27] Linehan, M. (2013, June 22). Somalia – A new investment
frontier. Rising Powers. Retrieved from https://rising-powers.
com/2013/06/22/somalia-a-new-investment-frontier/.
- [28] Lough, R. (2012, June 3). Turkey tries out soft power in Somalia.
Reuters. Retrieved from http://www.reuters.com/article/somaliaturkey-idUSL5E8GP2LP20120603.
- [29] Mbogo, S. (2012). Turkey, Kenya in trade diplomacy. The East
African. Retrieved from http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/business/
Turkey+Kenya+in+trade+diplomacy/-/2560/1499994/-/n579hq/-/
index.html.
- [30] Nenova, T. (2004). Private sector response to the absence of
government institutions in Somalia. Washington, DC: World Bank.
- [31] Ngigi, G. (2012). Turkish firm plans Sh5bn investment in
logistics. Business Daily. Retrieved from http://www.
businessdailyafrica.com/Turkish-firm-plans-Sh5bn-investment-inlogistics/-/539552/1362086/-/113hwppz/-/index.html.
- [32] Ochami, D. (2008). Kibaki friends: Discontent increases over new alliance. The Standard. Retrieved from http://www.
afroarticles.com/article-dashboard/Article/Kibaki-friends--
discontent-increases-over-new-alliance/113467.
- [33] Özerdem, A. (2013, April 10). How Turkey is emerging as
a development partner in Africa. The Guardian. Retrieved from
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionalsnetwork/2013/apr/10/turkey-development-partner-africa.
- [34] Özkan, M. (2008). Turkey discovers Africa: Implications and
prospects (SETA Policy Brief No. 22). Ankara: SETA Foundation
for Political, Economic, and Social Research.
- [35] Özkan, M. (2012). Türkiye’nin Afrika’da artan rolü: Pratik
çabalar ve söylem arayışları. Ortadoğu Analiz, 4(46), 19-28.
- [36] Özkan, M. (2014). Turkey’s involvement in Somalia: Assessment
of a state-building in progress. Ankara: SETA Foundation for
Political, Economic, and Social Research.
- [37] Özkan, M. (2016). Turkey’s African experience: From venture
to normalization (IAI Working Papers 16/20). Rome: Istituto
Affari Internazionali (IAI).
- [38] Sezgin, Z., & Dijkzeul, D. (Eds.). (2015). The new humanitarians
in international practice: Emerging actors and contested
principles. New York: Routledge.
- [39] Snyder, G. H. (2002). Mearsheimer’s world-offensive realism and
the struggle for security: A review essay. International Security,
27(1), 149-173.
- [40] Tran, M. (2011, August 8). Al-Shabaab has withdrawn from
Mogadishu – but what happens now? The Guardian. Retrieved
from https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/aug/08/
al-shabaab-mogadishu-somalia.
- [41] Turkey finalizes military training base in Somalia.
(2016, October 1). Hürriyet Daily News. Retrieved from
http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-finalizesmilitary-training-base-in-somalia.aspx?
PageID=238&NID=104468&NewsCatID=510.
- [42] Waltz, K. N. (2010). Theory of international politics.
Long Grove: Waveland Press.
- [43] Wasuge, M. (2016). Turkey’s assistance model in Somalia:
Achieving much with little. Mogadishu: The Heritage Institute
for Policy Studies.