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• (1) The Ethiopian emperor who initiated the re-unification process of the country. He ruled the country from 1855 to 1868 and died fighting against the British at Maqdalla in 1868.
• (2) OLF (Oromo Liberation Front); EPPF (Ethiopian Peoples Patriotic Front) (3) It was Stephen Jones who outlined the “traditional” four stages of boundary making in 1945. However, as Pratt (2006) noted the four stages (i.e.delimitation, demarcation, maintenance and management) should not be seen as totally independent processes. In many cases they overlap.
• (4) On the other hand, Prescott (1979) identifies only three stages in boundary making: allocation, delimitation and demarcation.
• (5) Ron Adler calls the politicians and their advisers as “boundary architects” and the technical specialists as “boundary engineers” (Blake 1995: 45).
• (6) As stated elsewhere in this paper, Charles Gwynn who delimited and demarcated Ethiopia’s border with Sudan was employed by the Royal Engineers Officers. (7) Blake (1995: 46) argues that “agreements are.......perfectly valid without demarcation.”
• (8) As Rushworth (1997:61) emphasized “delimitation” requires the arts of diplomacy, while “demarcation” is a mechanical process. In short, delimitation is drawing a line on the map while demarcation is drawing a line on the ground.
• (9) This is particularly true in poor countries like Ethiopia and Sudan. (10) Loisel (2004: 4) argues that in 1990 almost 87% of African borders were inherited from colonial era.
• (11) Foucher (1991: 202) claimed that by 1991, 41% of African border had never been demarcated.
• (12) On the other hand, Asiwaju and Nugent (1993) criticized the perception that claims African ethnic conflicts are caused by irrational colonial boundaries.
• (13) This means, according to Griggs (1997: 64), after independence African countries agreed to stick with colonial boundaries which were the result of the Berlin Conference. Herbst (1989: 673) argues: “there is widespread agreement that the boundaries are arbitrary, yet the vast majority of them have remained virtually untouched since the late 1800’s, when they were first demarcated.” The only two exceptions are Eritrea and the Western Sahara.
• (14) Griggs (1997: 66) argues that African colonial boundaries are also the causes for high economic costs. That is to say, due to border disputes African countries purchase armaments and sometimes the expense is equivalent to the foreign aid they are receiving.
• (15) E.g., the relation between the ancient Axumite Kingdom of Ethiopia and the Meroe Kingdom of Sudan. (16) Egypt annexed Sudan in 1821-1822.
• (17) Named after their leader Muhammad Ahmad (“Mahdi”) who later ruled Sudan from June 1881 to June 1885 by expelling the Anglo-Egyptian forces.
• (18) The Mahdists successfully expelled the Egyptians from Sudan and occupied Khartoum in 1885.
• (19) Khalifa Abdallah succeeded Mahdi and ruled Sudan from June 1885 to September 1898.
• (20) According to Abdussamad (1999), “Towards the end of the nineteenth century, the Ethiopian empire incorporated the north western border enclaves of
• Bela-Shangul and Gumuz into greater Ethiopia.” (21) Major Charles Gwynn (Later Major General) was born in Ireland in 1870. In , he was commissioned in the Royal Engineers. He joined the geographical section of the Intelligence Branch of the war office from 1897 to 1901. Until 1904 he undertook survey work in the Sudan. He was awarded his CMG for conducting the survey determining the border between Ethiopia and Sudan He died in 1963 in Dublin, Ireland (Long 1983).
• (22) Gwynn uses the terms “Abyssinia” and “Abyssinians” throughout his article. (23) This is because either the Europeans were not affordable or the Ethiopians were not ready to trust them (Gwynn 1937: 150).
• (24) The forces of Khalifa were able to push the British forces towards Gedaref and Gallabat provinces and Blue Nile and Sobat rivers (Gwynn 1937: 151)
• (25) Named after the head of the delegation, James Rennell Rodd. (26) By that time, the British themselves had no clear information about the Ethiopia-Sudan border areas. According to Gwynn (1937: 150-151), “to take the case of the Sudan; the maps in much of the frontier regions were blank, and other parts were out of date-nor could the Abyssinians supply reliable information”.
• (27) As I stated earlier, the Dervishes defeated the Anglo-Egyptian forces in and drove them from cities like Khartoum. However, in July 1894, the Italians under General Baratieri expanded their holding from Massawa and conquered Kassala from the Dervishes. When the Italians were defeated by
• Menelik of Ethiopia in 1896 at Adwa, they were not in a position to maintain their forces in Kassala though the post Adwa peace agreement between Ethiopia and Italy allow the latter to keep its military presence in the Kassala area (The New
• York Times 21 December 1897). In the mean time, the Dervishes besieged the Italian forces at Kassala in March 1896. Unable to resist the pressure, the Italians decided to evacuate from Kassala, and the Anglo-Ethiopian forces rapidly occupied Kassala. The British used Kassala as a launching pad to counter-attack the Dervishes who fortified themselves in Khartoum (The New
• York Times 21 December 1897).
• (28) Captain Bright had previously conducted an expedition from East Africa to the northern end of Lake Rudolf (29) Elaboration is mine (30) In the following years, some of the communities resisted the British’s attempt to put them in Sudan. One of the leaders of the resistance was Ibrahim Wad Mahmud. Then, the British sent an army to crush the resistance and hanged Ibrahim Wad Mahmud in Khartoum (See Gwynn 1937: 154).
• (31) As testified by Mburu (2003:20) “Addis Ababa renounced Britain’s attempt to rectify this border through a survey by Major Charles Gwynn (Royal
• Engineers) in August 1908 for excluding Ethiopian surveyors.”
• (32) The preliminary survey of the Kenya-Ethiopia boundary was earlier carried out by Captain P. Maud R.E., in the winter of 1902-1903. He surveyed the area between the Dawa River and Lake Rudolf (Gwynn 1937: 159).
• (33) Emperor Menelik’s illness was a great concern for the British as clearly seen in the British newspapers. The New York Times reported the health condition of the Emperor on almost regular basis (See: New York Times 9 January 1992; 30 January 1909; 2 November 1909; 1 December 1906; 23
• December 1906; 25 May 1910; 22 February 1910; 29 March 1910; 31 October ; 12 January 1910; 2 April 1910; 19 December 1909).
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