The examination of the variables affecting the print awareness skills of six-year-old children attending kindergarten

This study aimed to investigate the relationships between child gender, maternal education, writing readiness skills, and print awareness skills. A total of three hundred and sixteen six-year-old children, comprising one hundred and eighty-three girls and one hundred and thirty-three boys, were assessed for their writing readiness skills and print awareness skills. Spearman correlation coefficients were calculated to examine the potential relationships among child gender, maternal education, writing readiness skills, and print awareness skills. Additionally, a regression analysis was conducted to assess the predictive strength of these variables on print awareness skills, with child gender and maternal education treated as dummy variables. The results of the regression analysis revealed that these three variables accounted for approximately nine percent of the variance in print awareness skills. The implications of these findings were discussed in terms of understanding the interconnectedness of child gender, maternal education, writing readiness skills, and print awareness skills in promoting emergent literacy development. These findings hold significance for practitioners as they aim to determine the predictive power of writing readiness skills and provide appropriate support for children in relation to these skills.

Keywords:

Emergent literacy skills, writing readiness skills, print awareness skills preschoolers,

PDF

___

Abbott, R., Berninger, V. W., & Fayol, M. (2010). Longitudinal relationships of levels of language in writing and between writing and reading in grades 1 to 7. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 281-298.
Aram, D., & Biron, S. (2004). Joint storybook reading and joint writing interventions among low SES preschoolers: Differential contributions to early literacy. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 19, 588-610.
Aram, D., & Levin, I. (2001). Mother-child joint writing in low SES sociocultural factors, maternal mediation and emergent literacy. Cognitive Development, 16, 831-852.
Asher, A. V. (2006). Handwriting instruction in elementary schools. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 60, 461-471. Bengocheaa, A., Justice, L. M., & Hijlkemac, M. J. (2017). Print knowledge in Yucatec Maya–Spanish bilingual children: An initial inquiry. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 20(7), 807-822.
Blair, R., & Savage, R. (2006). Name writing but not environmental print recognition is related to letter-sound knowledge and phonological awareness in pre-readers. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 19, 991-1016.
Bloodgood, J. W. (1999). What’s in a name? Children’s name writing and literacy acquisition. Reading Research Quarterly, 34, 342-367.
Brooks-Gunn, J., Han, W., & Waldfogel, J. (2002). Maternal employment and child cognitive outcomes in the first three years of life: The NICHD study of early child care. Child Development, 73, 1052-1072.
Brown, P. M., Byrnes, L. J. Watson, L. M., & Raban, B. (2013). Young learners: Aspects of home literacy environments supporting hypotheses about the structure of printed words. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 11(3), 262-273.
Cabell, S. Q., Tortorelli, L. S., & Gerde, H. K. (2013). How do I write...? Scaffolding preschoolers’ early writing skills. The Reading Teacher, 66(8), 650-659.
Catts, H. (1991). Facilating phonological awareness: Role of speech language pathologist. Language Speech and Hearing Service in Schools, 22(4), 196-203.
Christie, J., Enz, B., & Vukelich, C. (2003). Teaching language and literacy: Preschool through the elementary grades (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Clark, P., & Kragler, S. (2005). The impact of including writing materials in early childhood classrooms on the early literacy development of children from low- income families. Early Child Development and Care, 175(4), 285-301.
Clay, M. M. (2001). Change over time in children’s literacy development. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Coker Jr, D. L., & Ritchey, K. D. (2014). Universal Screening for writing risk in kindergarten. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 39(4), 245-256.
Cottone, E. A. (2012). Preschoolers’ emergent literacy skills: The mediating role of maternal reading beliefs. Early Education & Development, 23(3), 351-372.
Curenton, S., & Justice, L. M. (2008). Children’s preliteracy skills: Influence of mothers’ education and beliefs about shared-reading interactions. Early Education & Development, 19, 261-283.
Dennis, L. R., & Votteler, N. K. (2013). Preschool teachers and children’s emergent writing: Supporting diverse learners. Early Childhood Education Journal, 41, 439-446.
DeBaryshe, D. B., Binder, J. C., & Buell, M. J. (2000). Mothers’ implicit theories of early literacy instruction: Implications for children’s reading and writing. Early Child Development and Care, 160, 119-131.
Denton, P. L., Cope, S., & Moser, C. (2006). The effects of sensorimotor-based intervention versus therapeutic practice on improving handwriting performance in 6- to 11-year-old children. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 60, 16-27.
Diamond, K. E., Gerde, H. K., & Powell, D. R. (2008). Development in early literacy skills during the pre-kindergarten year in Head Start: Relations between growth in children’s writing and understanding of letters. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 23, 467-478.
Dickinson, D. K., & Snow, C. E. (1987). Interrelationships among prereading and oral language skills in kindergartners from two social classes. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 2, 1-25.
Dinehart, L. (2014). Handwriting in early childhood education: Current research and future implications. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 0(0),1-22.
Dinehart, L., & Manfra, L. (2013). Association between early fine motor development and later math and reading achievement in early elementary school. Early Education and Development, 24(2), 138–161.
Dynia, J. M., & Solari, E. J. (2021). Print knowledge in children with autism spectrum disorder: Do child and family variables play a role? Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 52, 197-208.
Dynia, J. M., Purtell, K. M., Justice, L. M., Pratt, A. S., & Hijlkema, M. J. (2020). Home literacy environments in maya communities in the Yucatan Peninsula. Early Education and Development, 31(3), 411-425.
Erhardt, R. P., & Meade, V. (2005). Improving handwriting without teaching handwriting: The consultative clinical reasoning process. Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, 52, 199-210.
Evans, M. A., & Shaw, D. (2008). Home grown for reading: Parental contributions to young children’s emergent literacy and word recognition. Canadian Psychology, 49(2), 89-95.
Farver, J. A. M., Xu, Y., Lonigan, C. J., & Eppe, S. (2013). The home literacy environment and Latino head start children’s emergent literacy skills. Developmental Psychology, 49(4), 775-791.
Feder, K. F., & Majnemer, A. (2007). Handwriting development, competency, and intervention. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 49, 312-317.
Foster, M. A., Lambert, R., Abbott-Shim, M., McCarty, F., & Franze, S. (2005). A model of home learning environment and social risk factors in relation to children’s emergent literacy and social outcomes. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 20, 13-36.
Foy, J. G., & Mann, V. (2003). Home literacy environment and phonological awareness in preschool children: Differential effects for rhyme and phoneme awareness. Applied Psycholinguistics, 24, 59-88.
Gerde, H. K., Bingham, G. E., & Wasik, B. A. (2012). Writing in early childhood classrooms: Guidance for best practices. Early Childhood Educational Journal, 40, 351-359.
Gerde, H. K., Skibbe, L. E., Ryan P., & Martoccio, T. L. (2012). Child and home predictors of children’s name writing. Child Development Research, 1-12.
Grissmer, D., Grimm, K. J., Aiyer, S. M., Murrah, W. M., & Steele, J. S. (2010). Fine motor skills and early comprehen ion of the world: Two new school readiness indicators. Developmental Psychology, 46, 1008-1017.
Guo, Y., Justice, L. M., Kaderavek, J. N., & Mcginty, A. (2012). The literacy environment of preschool classrooms: Contributions to children’s emergent literacy growth. Journal of Research in Reading, 35(3), 308-327
Hammer, C. S., Farkas, G., & Maczuga, S. (2010). The language and literacy development of head start children: A study using the family and child experiences survey database. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 41, 70-83.
Hammill, D. D. (2004). What we know about correlates of reading. Exceptional Children, 70(4), 453-468.
Hartas, D. (2011). Families’ social backgrounds matter: Socio-economic factors, home learning and young children’s language, literacy and social outcomes. British Educational Research Journal, 37(6), 893-914.
Havens, M. C. (2002). Emergent namewriting in preschoolers. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, N.J.
Hecht, S., & Close, L. (2002). Emergent literacy skills and training time uniquely predict variability in responses to phonemic awareness training in disadvantaged kindergartners. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 82, 93-115.
Hiebert, E. H. (1981). Developmental patterns and interrelationships of preschool children’s print awareness. Reading Research Quarterly, 16, 236-260.
Hofslundsengen, H., Gustafsson, J. E., & Eriksen Hagtvet, B. (2019). Contributions of the home literacy environment and underlying language skills to preschool invented writing. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 63(5), 653-669.
Hood, M., Conlon, E., & Andrews, G. (2008). Preschool home literacy practices and children’s literacy development: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(2), 252-271.
Hooper, S. R., Roberts, J. E., Nelson, L., Zeisel, S., & Kasambira Fannin, D. (2010). Preschool predictors of narrative writing skills in elementary school children. School Psychology Quarterly, 25, 1-12.
Horner, S. L. (2005). Categories of environmental print: All logos are not created equal. Early Childhood Education Journal, 33, 113-119.
Jones, C. D., Reutzel, D. R., & Fargo, J. D. (2010). Comparing two methods of writing instruction: Effects on kindergarten students' reading skills. The Journal of Educational Research, 103(5), 327-341.
Justice, L. M., & Pullen, P. C. (2003). Promising interventions for promoting emergent literacy skills: Three evidence-based approaches. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 23, 99-113.
Kaderavek, J. N., & Pakulski, L. A. (2007). Mother child story book interactions: Literacy orientation of pre-schoolers with hearing impairment. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 7, 49-72.
Kelman, M. E. (2006). An investigation of preschool children’s primary literacy skills, unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Wichita State: USA.
Kim, Y., Al Otaiba, S., Puranik, C., Folsom, J. S., Greulich, L., & Wagner, R. K. (2011). Componential skills of beginning writing: An exploratory study. Learning and Individual Differences, 21, 517–525.
Lawhon, T., & Cobb, J. B. (2002). Routines that build emergent literacy skills in infants, toddlers, and preschoolers. Early Childhood Education Journal, 30(2), 113-118.
Levy, B. A., Gong, Z., Hessels, S., Evans, M. A., & Jared, D. (2006). Understanding print: Early reading development and the contributions of home literacy experiences. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 93(1), 63-93.
Longcamp, M., Zerbato Poudou, M. T., & Velay, J. L. (2005). The influence of writing practice on letter recognition in preschool children: A comparison between handwriting and typing. Acta Psychologica, 119(1), 67-79.
Longcamp, M., Boucard, C., Gilhodes, J. C., Anton, J. L., Roth, M., Nazarian, B., & Velay J. L. (2008). Learning through hand or typewriting influences visual recognition of new graphic shapes: Behavioral and functional imaging evidence. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20(5), 802-815.
Lonigan, C. J., Schatschneider, C., & Westberg, L. (2008). Identification of children’s skills and abilities linked to later outcomes in reading, writing, and spelling. In: The National Early Literacy Panel (ed.) Developing Early Literacy. Jessup, MD: National Institute for Literacy, 55-106.
Lonigan, C. J., Burgess, S. R., & Anthony, J. L. (2000). Development of emergent literacy and early reading skills in preschool children: Evidence from a latent-variable longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 36, 596-613.
Lovelace, S., & Stewart, S. R. (2007). Increasing print awareness in preschoolers with language impairment using non-evocative print referencing. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 38, 16-30.
Lust, C. A., & Donica, D. K. (2011). Research schoolars initiative-effectiveness of a handwriting readiness program in Head Start: A two-group controlled trial. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 65, 560-568.
Magnuson, K. A., Sexton, H. R., Davis-Kean, P. E., & Huston, A. C. (2009). Increases in maternal education and young children’s language skills. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 55, 319-350.
Maki, H. S., Voeten, M. J. M., Vauras, M. M. S., & Poskiparta, E. H. (2001). Predicting writing skill development with word recognition and preschool readiness skills. Reading and Writing, 14, 643-672.
Makin, L., & Whitehead, M. (2004). How to develop children’s early literacy (A guide for professional carers and educators. Paul Chapman Publishing; London.
Marr, D., & Cermak, S. (2003). Consistency of handwriting in early elementary students. American Journal Occupational Therapy, 57, 161-167.
Martini, F., & Senechal, M. (2012). Learning literacy skills at home: Parent teaching, expectations, and child interest. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 44(3), 210-221.
Mayer, K. (2007). Emerging knowledge about emergent writing. Young Children, 62(1), 34-41.
McMaster, K., & Espin, C. (2007). Technical features of curriculum-based measurement in writing: A literature review. The Journal of Special Education, 41(2), 68-84.
Molfese, V., Beswick, J., Molnar, A., & Jacobi-Vessels, J. (2006). Alphabetic skills in preschool: A preliminary study of letter naming and letter writing. Developmental Neuropsychology, 29, 5-19.
Morton, T. (2014). Paired books: Literature connections for emergent learners. The Journal of the Texas Association for the Education of Young Children, 35(4), 24-28.
Myrtil, M. J., Justice, L. M., & Jiang, H. (2019). Home-literacy environment of low-income rural families: Association with child- and caregiver-level characteristics. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 60,1-10. Neuman, B., Coople, S., & Bredekamp, S. (2000). Learning to read and write. (Developmentally appropiate practices for young children). NAEYC, Washington.
Neumann, M. M., Hood, M., & Ford, R. (2013). Mother–child referencing of environmental print and its relationship with emergent literacy skills. Early Education and Development, 24, 1175-1193.
Neumann, M. M. (2016). Young children's use of touch screen tablets for writing and reading at home: Relationships with emergent literacy. Computers & Education, 97, 61-68.
Neuman, S. B., Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (2000). Learning to Read and Write: Developmentally Appropriate Practice for Children. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.
Perlmutter, J., Folger, T., & Holt, K. (2009). Pre-kindergartners learn to write: A play on words. Childhood Education, 86(1), 14-19.
Puranik, C. S., Lonigan, J. C., & Kim, Y. (2011). Contributions of emergent literacy skills to name writing, letter writing, and spelling in preschool children. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 26, 465-474.
Puranik, C. S., & Al Otaiba, S. (2012). Examining the contribution of handwriting and spelling to written expression in kindergarten children. Reading and Writing, 25, 1523-1546.
Puranik, C. S., Al Otaiba, S., Folsom Sidler, J., & Greulich, L. (2014). Exploring the amount and type of writing instruction during language arts instruction in kindergarten classrooms. Reading and Writing, 27, 213-236.
Puranik, C. S., & Lonigan, J. C. (2012). Name-writing proficiency, not length of name, is associated with preschool children’s emergent literacy skills. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27, 284-294.
Puranik, C. S., & Lonigan, C. J. (2011). From scribbles to scrabble: Preschool children’s developing knowledge of written language. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 24(5), 567-589.
Ratzon, N. Z., Efraim, D., & Bart, O. A. (2007). Short-term graphomotor program for improving writing readiness skills of first-grade students. American Journal Occupational Therapy, 61, 399–405.
Ray, R. D., & Jamison, D. F. (2010). Comparing two methods of writing instruction: Effects on kindergarten students' reading skills. The Journal of Educational Research, 103(5), 327-341.
Ritchey, K. D. (2006). Learning to write: Progress monitoring tools for beginning and at-risk writers. Teaching Exceptional Children, 39(2), 22-26.
Rosenblum, S., Goldstand, S., & Parush, S. (2006). Relationships among biomechanical ergonomic factors, handwriting product quality, handwriting efficiency, and computerized handwriting process measures in children with and without handwriting difficulties. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 60, 28–39.
Shatil, E., Share, D. L., & Levin, I. (2000). On the contribution of kindergarten writing to grade 1 literacy: A longitudinal study in Hebrew. Applied Psycholinguistics, 21, 1-2.
Son, S. H., Lee, K., & Sung, M. (2013). Links between preschoolers' behavioral regulation and school readiness skills: The role of child gender. Early Education & Development, 24(4), 468-490.
Skibbe, L. E., Justice, L. M., Zucker, T. A., & McGinty, A. S. (2008). Relations among maternal literacy beliefs, home literacy practices, and the emergent literacy skills of preschoolers with specific language impairment. Early Education and Development, 19(1), 68-88.
Stephenson, K. A., Parrila, R. K., Georgiou, G. K., & Kirby, J. R. (2008). Effects of home literacy, parents' beliefs, and children's task-focused behavior on emergent literacy and word reading skills. Scientific Studies of Reading, 12(1), 24-50.
Stevenson, N. C., & Just, C. (2012). In early education, why teach handwriting before keyboarding? Early Childhood Education Journal, 1-8.
Storch, S. A., & Whitehurst, G. J. (2002). Oral language and code-related precursors to reading: Evidence from a longitudinal structural model. Developmental Psychology, 38(6), 934-947.
Şimşek, Ö., & Alisinoğlu, F. (2013a). Validity and reliability study of the “Control list for the evaluation of the writing readiness skills of pre-school children”. Kastamonu Journal of Education, 21(3), 1163-1176.
Şimşek, Ö., & Alisinoğlu, F. (2013b). Validity and reliability study of the “Control list for the evaluation of the print awareness of pre-school children”. Black Sea Journal of Public and Social Science, 5(8), 15-28.
Van Hartingsveldt, M. J., De Groot, M. J. M., Aarts, P. B. M., & Nijhuis Van Der Sanden, M. W. G. (2010). Standardized tests of handwriting readiness: A systematic review of the literature. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 506-515.
Van Kleeck, A. (2003). Research on book sharing: Another critical look, In A.van Kleeck, S. A. Stahl, and E. B. Bauer (Eds.), On reading books to children (pp. 271-320), Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Van Tonder, B., Arrow, A., & Nicholson, T. (2019). Not just storybook reading: Exploring the relationship between home literacy environment and literate cultural capital among 5-year-old children as they start school. Australian Journal of Language and Literacy, 42(2), 87-102.
Weigel, D. J., Martin S. S., & Bennett, K. K. (2006). Mothers’ literacy beliefs: Connections with the home literacy environment and pre-school children’s literacy development. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 6(2) 191-211.
Weinberger, J. (1996). Literacy goes to school. Paul Chapman Publishing: London.
Welsch, J., Sullivan, A., & Justice, L. (2003). That’s my letter! What preschoolers’ name writing representations tell us about emergent literacy knowledge. Journal of Literacy Research, 35, 757-776.
Whitehurst, G., & Lonigan, C. (1998). Child development and emergent literacy. Child Development, 69, 848-872.
Wu, C. C., & Sterling Honig, A. (2010). Taiwanese mothers’ beliefs about reading aloud with preschoolers: findings from the parent reading belief inventory. Early Child Development and Care, 180(5), 647-669.
Xu, Y., Farver, J. A. M., & Krieg, A. (2017). The home environment and Asian immigrant children’s early literacy skills. Parenting, 17(2), 104-123.
Zhang, C., & Bingham, G. E. (2019). Promoting high-leverage writing instruction through an early childhood classroom daily routine (WPI): A professional development model of early writing skills. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 49, 138-151.