Egzersiz Bağımlılığı: Bir Güncelleme

Egzersiz fiziksel, zihinsel ve psikososyal sağlığın gelişiminde, psikopatolojik süreçlerin iyileşmesinde önemli katkılar sağlamaktadır. Bağımlılık tekrarlanan örüntülerle bireylerin yaşam kalitesini bozan bir süreçtir. Egzersiz bağımlılığı kişisel, sosyal ve mesleki uyumunu bozacak düzeyde egzersiz alışkanlıkları üzerinde kontrolün kaybedilmesidir. Aşırı egzersizle birlikte ilgili belirtilerin de gözlenmesi beklenmektedir. Davranışsal olarak görülen bir bağımlılıktır. Egzersiz bağımlılığının açıklanmasına ve değerlendirilmesine katkı sağlamak için önerilen biyopsikososyal modeller vardır. Yapılan çalışmalarda farklılıklar görülmekle birlikte yaygınlığının % 3 düzeyinde olduğu kabul edilmektedir. Tanısal kriterlerin oluşturulması için yeterli düzeyde kanıt elde edilemediği değerlendirildiğinden, egzersiz bağımlılığı resmi sınıflandırma sistemlerinde psikolojik hastalık olarak henüz yer alamamıştır. Kanıtlara ulaşmak için Egzersiz Bağımlılığı Envanteri (EAI) ve Egzersiz Bağımlılığı Ölçeği-21 (EDS-21) geliştirilmiştir. Kavramsallaştırma, araştırma yöntemi ve örneklem gibi çeşitli nedenlerden dolayı konuyla ilgili tartışmalar devam etmektedir. Egzersiz bağımlılığını daha iyi anlayabilmek için kişilik özellikleri ve muhtemel psikopatolojik özellikleri dikkate almak katkı sağlayabilir. Devam eden tartışmalarda açıklık getirilmeye ihtiyaç duyulan süreçler olduğu değerlendirilmiştir.

Exercise Addiction: An Update

Exercise provides important contributions to the development of physical, mental and psychosocial health and the treatment of psychopathological processes. Addiction is process that disrupts the quality of life of individuals with repetitive patterns. Exercise addiction is the loss of control over exercise habits that will impair personal, social and professional adaptation. It is expected that related symptoms will be observed along with excessive exercise. It is behavioral addiction. There are biopsychosocial models proposed to contribute to the explanation and evaluation of exercise addiction. Although there are differences in the studies, its prevalence is accepted to be at the level of 3%. Exercise addiction has not been included as a psychological disorder in official classification systems until now, as there is insufficient evidence to establish the diagnostic criteria. The Exercise Addiction Inventory (EAI) and Exercise Addiction Scale-21 (EDS-21) were developed to reach the evidence. Discussions on the subject continue for various reasons such as conceptualization, research method and sampling. Considering personality traits and possible psychopathological features may contribute to a better understanding of exercise addiction. As the discussions continue, it has been evaluated that there are processes that need clarification

PDF

___

1. Smith DE. The process addictions and the new ASAM definition of addiction. J Psychoactive Drugs 2012; 44(1): 1-4.
2. Petry J. A Critical look at the concept of addiction in DSM-5 and ICD-11. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci, 2021; 9(1), 7-14.
3. Deleuze J, Rochat L, Romo L, et al. Prevalence and characteristics of addictive behaviors in a community sample: A latent class analysis. Addict Behav Rep 2015; 1: 49-56.
4. Grant JE, Potenza MN, Weinstein A, Gorelick DA. Introduction to behavioral addictions. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 2010; 36(5):233-241.
5. Hamer M, Karageorghis CI. Psychobiological mechanisms of exercise dependence. Sport Med 2007; 37(6): 477-484.
6. Leeman RF, Potenza MN. Similarities and differences between pathological gambling and substance use disorders: a focus on impulsivity and compulsivity. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2012; 219(2): 469-490.
7. Griffiths MA. Components model of addiction within a biopsychosocial framework. J Subst Use 2005; 10(4):191-197.
8. Marlatt GA, Baer JS, Donovan DM, Kivlahan DR. Addictive behaviors-etiology and treatment. Annu Rev Psychol 1988; 39: 223-252.
9. Monok K, Berczik K, Urban R, et al. Psychometric properties and concurrent validity of two exercise addiction measures: A population wide study. Psychol Sport Exerc 2012; 13: 739-746.
10. De Mello MT, Lemos A, Antunes HK, et al. Relationship between physical activity and depression and anxiety symptoms: a population study. J Affect Disord 2013; 149: 241-246.
11. Moreira Antunes HK, Fogaça Leite GS, Sun Lee K, et al. Exercise deprivation increases negative mood in exercise-addicted subjects and modifies their biochemical markers. Physiol Behav 2016; 156:182-190.
12. Mikkelsena K, Stojanovskaa L, Polenakovicb M, et al. Exercise and mental health. Maturitas 2017; 106: 48-56.
13. Jee Y, Eun D. Exercise addiction and psychophysiological health in korean collegiate students. Int J Ment Health Addict 2018;16(2):451-65.
14. Bruno A, Quattrone D, Scimeca G, et al. Unravelling exercise addiction: the role of narcissism and self-esteem. J Addict 2014; 2014: 987841.
15. Malchow B, Reich-Erkelenz D, Oertel-Knochel O. The effects of physical exercise in schizophrenia and affective disorders. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2013; 263(6): 451-467.
16. Lynch WJ, Peterson AB, Sanchez V, et al. Exercise as a novel treatment for drug addiction: A neurobiological and stage-dependent hypothesis. Neurosci Biobehav 2013; 37(8) 1622-1644.
17. Szabo A, Griffiths M, De La Vega MR, et al. Methodological and conceptual limitations in exercise addiction research. Yale J Biol Med 2015; 88(3): 303- 308.
18. Egorov AY, Szabo A. The exercise paradox: An interactional model for a clearer conceptualization of exercise addiction. J Behav Addict 2013; 2(4): 199-208.
19. Weinstein A, Maayan G, Weinstein Y. A study on the relationship between compulsive exercise, depression and anxiety. J Behav Addict 2015; 4(4):315- 318.
20. Blaydon MJ, Lindner KJ, Kerr JH. Metamotivational characteristics of eating disordered and exercise dependent triathletes: An application of reversal theory. Psychol Sport Exerc 2002; 3(3): 223-236.
21. Bratland-Sanda S, Sundgot-Borgen J, Ro O, et al. Physical activity and exercise dependence during inpatient treatment of longstanding eating disorders: An exploratory study of excessive and non-excessive exercisers. Int J Eat Disord 2010; 43(3): 266-273.
22. Villella C, Martinotti G, Di Nicola M, et al. Behavioural addictions in adolescents and young adults: Results from a prevalence study. J Gambl Stud 2011; 27(2): 203-214.
23. Griffiths M. Behavioural addiction: an issue for everybody? Employee Counselling Today 1996; 8(3): 19-25.
24. Leeman RF, Potenza MN. A targeted review of the neurobiology and genetics of behavioural addictions: an emerging area of research. Can J Psychiatry 2013; 58(5): 260-273.
25. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed. Arlington, VA, USA: American Psychiatric Association 2013.
26. Linnet J. Neurobiological underpinnings of reward anticipation and outcome evaluation in gambling disorder. Front Behav Neurosci 2014; 8: 100.
27. Mayolas-Pı C, Simon-Grımal J, Peñarrubıa-Lozano C, et al. Exercise addiction risk and health in male and female amateur endurance cyclists. J Behav Addict 2017; 6(1): 74-83.
28. Downs DS, Hausenblas HA, Nigg CR. Factorial validity and psychometric examination of the Exercise Dependence Scale-Revised. Meas Phys Educ02 Exerc Sci. 2004;8: 183–201.
29. 29. Andreassen CS. Online social network site addiction: a comprehensive review. Curr Addict Rep 2015; 2: 175-184.
30. Freimuth M, Moniz S, Kim SR. Clarifying exercise addiction: differential diagnosis, co-occurring disorders, and phases of addiction. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2011; 8 (10): 4069-4081.
31. Vardar E, Vardar SA, Toksöz İ, et al. Egzersiz bağımlılığı ve psikopatolojik özelliklerinin değerlendirilmesi. Dusunen Adam 2012; 25: 51-57.
32. McNamara J, McCabe MP. Striving for success or addiction? exercise dependence among elite Australian Athletes. J Sports Sci 2012; 30 (8), 755- 766.
33. Sussman S, Lisha N, Griffiths MD. Prevalence of the addictions: A problem of the majority or the minority? Eval Health Prof 2011; 34(1): 3-56.
34. Szabo A. The impact of exercise deprivation on well-being of habitual exercisers. Aust J Sci Med Sport 1995; 27(3): 68-75.
35. Macfarlane L, Owens G, Cruz BP. Identifying the features of an exercise addiction: A Delphi study. J Behav Addict 2016; 5(3):474-484.
36. Kayhan RF, Kalkavan A, Terzi E. Fitness salonlarında spor yapan bireylerin egzersiz bağımlılığı düzeyleri ve ilişkili değişkenler. Bağımlılık Dergisi 2021; 22(3):248-256.
37. Katra H. Egzersiz yapan bireylerde egzersiz bağımlılığı ve benlik saygısı. Bağımlılık Dergisi 2021; 22(4):370-378.
38. Nazlıgül MD, Yılmaz AE. Oyun bağımlılığı ve egzersiz bağımlılığına davranışsal bağımlılık çerçevesinden bakış. Bağımlılık Dergisi 2019; 20(2): 97-108.
39. Berengüí R, López-Gullón JM, Angosto S. Physical sports activities and exercise addiction during lockdown in the spanish population. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2021; 18(6) :3119.
40. Lejoyeux M, Avril M, Richoux C, et al. Prevalence of exercise dependence and other behavioral addictions among clients of a Parisian fitness room. Compr Psychiatry 2008; 49: 353-358.
41. Hausenblas AH, Downs SD. How much is too much? The development and validation of the exercise dependence scale. Psychol Health 2002; 17 (4): 387-404.
42. de la Vega R, Almendros LJ, Barquín RR, et al. Exercise addiction during the COVID-19 pandemic: An international study confirming the need for considering passion and perfectionism. Int J Ment Health Addict 2022; 20(2): 1159-1170.
43. Lichtenstein MB, Jensen TT. Exercise addiction in CrossFit: Prevalence and psychometric properties of the Exercise Addiction Inventory. Addict Behav Rep 2016; 3: 33-37.
44. Griffiths MD, Szabo A, Terry A. The exercise addiction inventory: a quick and easy screening tool for health practitioners. Br J Sports Med 2005; 39: 30.
45. Ogden J, Veale D, Summers Z. The development and validation of the exercise dependence questionnaire. Addiction Research 1997; 5 (4): 343- 356.
46. Terry A, Szabo A, Griffiths M. The Exercise Addiction Inventory: A new brief screening tool. Addict Res Theory 2004; 12(5): 489-499.
47. Lichtenstein MB, Emborgb B, Hemmingsenc SH, Hansend NB. Is exercise addiction in fitness centres a socially accepted behaviour? Addict Behav Rep 2017; 6: 102-105.
48. Gürbüz B, Aşçı FH. Egzersiz bağımlılığı ölçeği-21’ in egzersiz katılımcıları için psikometrik özelliklerinin değerlendirilmesi. Gazi Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi 2006; 2: 3-10.
49. Wojtyna E, Król T, Hyla M. Two faces of exercise addiction - self-esteem, narcissism and sport addiction in women. Eur Psychiatry 2020; 63(1): 295- 296.
50. de La Vega R, Parastatıdou IS, Barquin RR, Szabo A. Exercise addiction in athletes and leisure exercisers: the moderating role of passion. J Behav Addict 2016; 5(2): 325-331.
51. Szabo A, Kovacsik R. When passion appears, exercise addiction disappears: Should hundreds of studies not considering passion be revisited? Swiss Journal of Psychology 2019; 78(3-4): 137-142.
52. Murray AL, McKenzie K, Newman E, Brown E. Exercise identity as a risk factor for exercise dependence. Br J Health Psychol 2013; 18(2): 369-382.
53. Lichtenstein MB, Christiansen E, Elklit A, et al. Exercise addiction: A study eating disorder symptoms, quality of life, personality traits and attachment styles. Psychiatry Res 2014; 215: 410-416.
54. Kun B, Urbán R, Szabo A, et al. Emotion dysregulation mediates the relationship between psychological distress, symptoms of exercise addiction and eating disorders: A large-scale survey among fitness center users. Sport Exerc Perform Psychol 2022; 11(2): 198–213..
55. Strahler J, Wachten H, Stark R, et al. Alike and different: Associations between orthorexic eating behaviors and exercise addiction. Eat Disord 2021; 54 (8): 1415-1425.
56. Chamberlain S, Grant J. Is problematic exercise really problematic? A dimensional approach. CNS Spectr 2020; 25(1): 64-70.
57. Gori A, Topino E, Griffiths MD. Protective and risk factors in exercise addiction: A series of moderated mediation analyses. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2021 18 (18): 9706.
58. Granziol U, Zorzi A, Cardaioli F, et al. Exercise addiction in athletes: Comparing two assessment instruments and willingness to stop exercise after medical advice. Psychol Assess 2021; 33(4): 326-337.
59. Aidman EV, Woollard S. The influence of self-reported exercise addiction on acute emotional and physiological responses to brief exercise deprivation. Psychol Sport Exerc 2003; 4(3): 225-236.
60. Szaboa A, Griffithsc MD, Hoglida RA, Demetrovicsa Z. Drug, nicotine, and alcohol use among exercisers: Does substance addiction co-occur with exercise addiction? Addict Behav Rep 2018; 7: 26-31.
61. Minji K, Yujin K, Hyunji K, et al. Does sport addiction enhance frontal executive function? The case of badminton. Neuroquantology 2018; 16 (6): 13-21.
62. Brellenthin AG, Crombie KM, Hillard CJ, Koltyn KF. Endocannabinoid and mood responses to exercise in adults with varying activity levels. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2017; 49(8): 1688-1696..
63. Salamone JD, Correa M, Mingote SM, Weber SM. Beyond the reward hypothesis: alternative functions of nucleus accumbens dopamine. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2005; 5: 34-41.
64. Parsons LH, Hurd YL. Endocannabinoid signalling in reward and addiction. Nat Rev Neurosci 2015; 16(10): 579-594.
65. Blackledge JT, Hayes SC. Emotion regulation in acceptance and commitment therapy. J Clin Psychol 2001; 57(2): 243-255.
66. Brand M, Wegmann E, Stark R, et al. The interaction of person-affect- cognition-execution (I-PACE) model for addictive behaviors: update, generalization to addictive behaviors beyond internet-use disorders, and specification of the process character of addictive behaviors. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 104: 1-10.
67. Andreassen CS, Billieux J, Griffiths, MD, et al. The relationship between addictive use of social media and video games and symptoms of psychiatric disorders: A large-scale cross-sectional study. Psychol Addict Behav 2016; 30(2): 252-262.
68. Grant JE, Lust K and Chamberlaın SR. Problematic smartphone use associated with greater alcohol consumption, mental health issues, poorer academic performance, and impulsivity. J Behav Addict 2019; 8(2): 335-342.
69. Dempsey AE, O’Brien KD, Tiamiyu MF, Elhai JD. Fear of missing out (FOMO) and rumination mediate relations between social anxiety and problematic facebook use. Addict Behav Rep 2019; 9: 100150.
70. Hussain Z, Wegmann E, Yangi H and Montag C. Social networks use disorder and associations with depression and anxiety symptoms: A systematic review of recent research in China. Front Psychol 2020; 11: 211.
71. Malaeb D, Salameh P, Barbar S, et al. Problematic social media use and mental health (depression, anxiety and insomnia) among Lebanese Adults: Any mediating effect of stress? Perspect Psychiatr Care 2020; 57(2): 539-549.
72. Zsido AN, Arato N, Lang A, et al. The connection and background mechanisms of social fears and problematic social networking site use: A structural equation modeling analysis. Psychiatry Res 2020; 292: 113323.
73. Brailovskaia J, Schillack H, Margraf J. Tell me why are you using social media (SM)! relationship between reasons for use of SM, SM flow, daily stress, depression, anxiety, and addictive SM use - An exploratory investigation of young adults in Germany. Comput Human Behav 2020; 113: 106511.
74. Verseillie E, Laconi S, Chabrol H. Pathological traits associated to Facebook and Twitter among French users. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020; 17(7): 2242.
75. Wong HY, Mo HY, Potenza MN, et al. Relationships between severity of internet gaming disorder, severity of problematic social media use, sleep quality and psychological distress. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020; 17(6): 1879.
76. Reichenberg LW, Seligman L. Selecting Effective Treatments: A Comprehensive, Systematic Guide To Treating Mental Disorders. Fifth Edition, New Jersey: Wiley, 2016; 447-448.
77. Griffiths MD. The Role of context in online gaming excess and addiction: some case study evidence. Int J Ment Health Addict 2009; 8(1): 119-125.
78. Tsitsika AK, Tzavela EC, Janikian M, et al. Online social networking in adolescence: patterns of use in six european countries and links with psychosocial functioning. J Adolesc Health 2014; 55(1): 141-147.