Betül BAYKAN, ESME EKİZOĞLU TURGUT, Güneş UZUN ALTIOKKA

An update on the pathophysiology of idiopathic intracranial hypertension alias pseudotumor cerebri

İdiyopatik intrakraniyal hipertansiyon (İİH) şiddetli başağrısı, papilödem ve görme bozukluklarına yol açan, nedeni bilinmeyen int- rakraniyal basınç artışı ile karakterize bir sendromdur. Eskiden kullanılan psödotümör serebri tanımı son yıllarda yeniden gündeme gelmiştir. İdiyopatik intrakraniyal hipertansiyon için en tutarlı ve en güçlü risk faktörleri obezite ve kadın cinsiyettir. Nadiren İİHde papilödem görülmeyip, başağrısı migrenöz özellikler taşıyan kronik günlük başağrısı profli gösterebilir. Farklı klinik durumlarla birlikteliği görülen bu durumun etiyolojisini açıklamaya yönelik çeşitli mekanizmalar öne sürülmüştür. Son yıllarda, enfamatuvar etmenler, natriüretik peptitler ve akuaporinlerin pathogeneze katkı olasılıkları üzerinde durulmaktadır. Öte yandan bazı araştırıcı- lar, İİH hastalarının çoğunda iki yanlı transvers sinüs darlığı görüldüğünü bildirmiş, bu nedenle de bazı hastalarda dural sinüslere stent yerleştirilmiştir. Görüldüğü gibi tek bir kuram bu sendromla ilgili soruları açıklamaya yetmemektedir ve İİHnin kesin nedeni üzerinde görüş birliği sağlanamamıştır. Bu derlemenin amacı, İİHnin gizemli patogenezi üzerine yeni gelişen görüşleri tartışmaktır.

İdiyopatik intrakraniyal hipertansiyonun -diğer adıyla psödotümör serebrinin- patofizyolojisi üzerine bir güncelleme

Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH) is a syndrome characterized by increased intracranial pressure of unknown cause, leading to severe headache, papilledema and visual disturbances. Its former name, pseudotumor cerebri, has gained popularity recently. Te strongest and most consistent risk factors of IIH are obesity and female gender. Infrequently, IIH may present in the absence of papilledema showing a headache profle similar to chronic daily headache with migrainous features. Tere have been several proposed mechanisms to explain the etiology of this disorder associated with various clinical conditions. In recent years, some infammatory factors, natriuretic peptides and aquaporins have been proposed as possible contributors of the pathogenesis. On the other hand, some investigators have reported that bilateral transverse sinus stenosis is seen in the majority of IIH patients; therefore, dural sinus stent placement is used in some patients. No single theory has been able to provide a comprehensive answer, and there is no consensus about the exact cause of IIH. Te aim of this review was to discuss the new insights on the mysterious pathogenesis of IIH.

PDF

___

1. Corbett JJ, Thompson HS. The rational management of idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Arch Neurol 1989;46(10):1049-51.
2. Cigeroglu OB, Gokyigit A, Baykan-Kurt B, Çelik M, Oge AE. Pseudotumour cerebri: Review of 34 cases. (in Turkish). Ar- chives of Neuropsychiatry 1994;31(1):57-62.
3. F riedman DI, Liu GT, Digre KB. Revised diagnostic criteria for the pseudotumor cerebri syndrome in adults and children. Neurology 2013;81(13):1159-65.
4. Durcan FJ, Corbett JJ, Wall M. The incidence of pseudotu - mor cerebri. Population studies in Iowa and Louisiana. Arch Neurol 1988;45(8):875-7.
5. Radhakrishnan K, Thacker AK, Bohlaga NH, Maloo JC, Ger- ryo SE. Epidemiology of idiopathic intracranial hyperten- sion: a prospective and case-control study. J Neurol Sci 1993;116(1):18-28.
6. Radhakrishnan K, Ahlskog JE, Cross SA, Kurland LT, OFallon WM. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (pseudotumor cerebri). Descriptive epidemiology in Rochester, Minn, 1976 to 1990. Arch Neurol 1993;50(1):78-80.
7. Kesler A, Gadoth N. Epidemiology of idiopathic intracranial hypertension in Israel. J Neuroophthalmol 2001;21(1):12-4.
8. P hillips PH, Repka MX, Lambert SR. Pseudotumor cerebri in children. J AAPOS 1998;2(1):33-8.
9. Wall M, George D. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension. A prospective study of 50 patients. Brain 1991;114 (Pt 1A):155-80. 10. Headache Classifca tion Subcommittee of the International Headache Society. The International Classifcation of Head- ache Disorders: 2nd ed. Cephalalgia 2004;24(Suppl 1):9- 160.
11. Ek izoglu E, Baykan B, Orhan EK, Ertas M. The analysis of allo- dynia in patients with idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Cephalalgia 2012;32(14):1049-58.
12. Bono F, Quattrone A. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension without papilloedema in headache suferers. Cephalalgia 2009;29(5):594.
13. M arcelis J, Silberstein SD. Idiopathic intracranial hyperten - sion without papilledema. Arch Neurol 1991;48(4):392-9.
14. Vieira DS, Masruha MR, Gonçalves AL, Zukerman E, Senne Soares CA, Nafah-Mazzacoratti Mda G, et al. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension with and without papilloedema in a consecutive series of patients with chronic migraine. Cephalalgia 2008;28(6):609-13.
15. M athew NT, Ravishankar K, Sanin LC. Coexistence of mi- graine and idiopathic intracranial hypertension without papilledema. Neurology 1996;46(5):1226-30.
16. Dig re KB, Nakamoto BK, Warner JE, Langeberg WJ, Bag - galey SK, Katz BJ. A comparison of idiopathic intracranial hypertension with and without papilledema. Headache 2009;49(2):185-93.
17. Bandyopadhyay S, Jacobson DM. Clinical features of late- onset pseudotumor cerebri fulflling the modifed dandy criteria. J Neuroophthalmol 2002;22(1):9-11.
18. Bruce BB, Kedar S, Van Stavern GP, Corbett JJ, Newman NJ, Biousse V. Atypical idiopathic intracranial hypertension: nor- mal BMI and older patients. Neurology 2010;74(22):1827- 32.
19. Zayit-Soudry S, Leibovitch I, Kesler A. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension after 40 years of age: clinical features in 23 pa- tients. Eur J Ophthalmol 2008;18(6):989-93.
20. Bruce BB, Kedar S, Van Stavern GP, Monaghan D, Acierno MD, Braswell RA, et al. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension in men. Neurology 2009;72(4):304-9.
21. P hillips PH. Pediatric pseudotumor cerebri. Int Ophthalmol Clin 2012 Summer;52(3):51-9.
22. Kunte H, Schmidt F, Kronenberg G, Hofmann J, Schmidt C, Harms L, et al. Olfactory dysfunction in patients with idio- pathic intracranial hypertension. Neurology 2013;81(4):379- 82.
23. S chmidt C, Wiener E, Hofmann J, Klingebiel R, Schmidt F, Hofmann T, et al. Structural olfactory nerve changes in pa- tients sufering from idiopathic intracranial hypertension. PLoS One 2012;7(4):e35221.
24. Dandy WE. Intracranial pressure without brain tumor: diag - nosis and treatment. Ann Surg 1937;106(4):492-513.
25. Smith JL. Whence pseudotumor cerebri? J Clin Neurooph - thalmol 1985;5(1):55-6.
26. Friedman DI, Jacobson DM. Diagnostic criteria for idiopath - ic intracranial hypertension. Neurology 2002;59(10):1492-5.
27. Sk au M, Brennum J, Gjerris F, Jensen R. What is new about idiopathic intracranial hypertension? An updated review of mechanism and treatment. Cephalalgia 2006;26(4):384-99.
28. Sinclair AJ, Ball AK, Burdon MA, Clarke CE, Stewart PM, Curn - ow SJ, et al. Exploring the pathogenesis of IIH: an infamma- tory perspective. J Neuroimmunol 2008;201-2:212-20.
29. S ahs AJ, Joynt RJ. Brain swelling of unknown cause. Neurol - ogy 1956;6:791-803. 30. M oser FG, Hilal SK, Abrams G, Bello JA, Schipper H, Silver AJ.
MR imaging of pseudotumor cerebri. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1988;150(4):903-9.
31. Gideon P, Sørensen PS, Thomsen C, Ståhlberg F, Gjerris F, Henriksen O. Increased brain water self-difusion in patients with idiopathic intracranial hypertension. AJNR Am J Neu- roradiol 1995;16(2):381-7.
32. M athew NT, Meyer JS, Ott EO. Increased cerebral blood volume in benign intracranial hypertension. Neurology 1975;25(7):646-9.
33. Raichle ME, Grubb RL Jr, Phelps ME, Gado MH, Caronna JJ. Cerebral hemodynamics and metabolism in pseudotumor cerebri. Ann Neurol 1978;4(2):104-11.
34. Calabrese VP, Selhorst JB, Harbison JW. CSF infusion test in pseudotumor cerebri. Trans Am Neurol Assoc 1978;103:146- 50.
35. Jann y P, Chazal J, Colnet G, Irthum B, Georget AM. Benign intracranial hypertension and disorders of CSF absorption. Surg Neurol 1981;15(3):168-74.
36. Johnston I, Paterson A. Benign intracranial hypertension. II. CSF pressure and circulation. Brain 1974;97(2):301-12.
37. M alm J, Kristensen B, Markgren P, Ekstedt J. CSF hydrody - namics in idiopathic intracranial hypertension: a long-term study. Neurology 1992;42(4):851-8.
38. Daniels AB, Liu GT, Volpe NJ, Galetta SL, Moster ML, New - man NJ, et al. Profles of obesity, weight gain, and quality of life in idiopathic intracranial hypertension (pseudotumor cerebri). Am J Ophthalmol 2007;143(4):635-41.
39. Ko MW, Chang SC, Ridha MA, Ney JJ, Ali TF, Friedman DI, et al. Weight gain and recurrence in idiopathic intracranial hyper- tension: a case-control study. Neurology 2011;76(18):1564- 7.
40. Sz ewka AJ, Bruce BB, Newman NJ, Biousse V. Idiopathic in - tracranial hypertension: relation between obesity and vi- sual outcomes. J Neuroophthalmol 2013;33(1):4-8.
41. Johnson LN, Krohel GB, Madsen RW, March GA Jr. The role of weight loss and acetazolamide in the treatment of id- iopathic intracranial hypertension (pseudotumor cerebri) Ophthalmology 1998;105(12):2313-7.
42. Sugerman HJ, DeMaria EJ, Felton WL 3rd, Nakatsuka M, Sis - manis A. Increased intra-abdominal pressure and cardiac flling pressures in obesity-associated pseudotumor cere- bri. Neurology 1997;49(2):507-11.
43. Lin J, Yan GT, Wang LH, Hao XH, Zhang K, Xue H. Leptin fuc - tuates in intestinal ischemia-reperfusion injury as infam- matory cytokine. Peptides 2004;25(12):2187-93.
44. Lampl Y, Eshel Y, Kessler A, Fux A, Gilad R, Boaz M, et al. Se - rum leptin level in women with idiopathic intracranial hy- pertension. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2002;72(5):642- 3.
45. Ball AK, Sinclair AJ, Curnow SJ, Tomlinson JW, Burdon MA, Walker EA, et al. Elevated cerebrospinal fuid (CSF) leptin in idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH): evidence for hypothalamic leptin resistance? Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2009;70(6):863-9.
46. Dhungana S, Sharrack B, Woodroofe N. Cytokines and che - mokines in idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Headache 2009;49(2):282-5.
47. E dwards LJ, Sharrack B, Ismail A, Tench CR, Gran B, Dhun - gana S, et al. Increased levels of interleukins 2 and 17 in the cerebrospinal fuid of patients with idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Am J Clin Exp Immunol 2013;2(3):234-44.
48. Wozniak SE, Gee LL, Wachtel MS, Frezza EE. Adipose tis - sue: the new endocrine organ? A review article. Dig Dis Sci 2009;54(9):1847-56.
49. Tabassi A, Salmasi AH, Jalali M. Serum and CSF vitamin A concentrations in idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Neurology 2005;64(11):1893-6.
50. Warner JE, Larson AJ, Bhosale P, Digre KB, Henley C, Alder SC, et al. Retinol-binding protein and retinol analysis in ce- rebrospinal fuid and serum of patients with and without idiopathic intracranial hypertension. J Neuroophthalmol 2007;27(4):258-62.
51. Cinciripini GS, Donahue S, Borchert MS. Idiopathic intra- cranial hypertension in prepubertal pediatric patients: characteristics, treatment, and outcome. Am J Ophthalmol 1999;127(2):178-82.
52. S oelberg Sørensen P, Gjerris F, Svenstrup B. Endocrine stud - ies in patients with pseudotumor cerebri. Estrogen levels in blood and cerebrospinal fuid. Arch Neurol 1986;43(9):902- 6.
53. Toscano V, Sancesario G, Bianchi P, Cicardi C, Casilli D, Giaco- mini P. Cerebrospinal fuid estrone in pseudotumor cerebri: a change in cerebral steroid hormone metabolism? J Endo- crinol Invest 1991;14(2):81-6.
54. Glueck CJ, Aregawi D, Goldenberg N, Golnik KC, Sieve L, Wang P. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension, polycys- tic-ovary syndrome, and thrombophilia. J Lab Clin Med 2005;145(2):72-82.
55. Glueck CJ, Iyengar S, Goldenberg N, Smith LS, Wang P. Idio- pathic intracranial hypertension: associations with coagu- lation disorders and polycystic-ovary syndrome. J Lab Clin Med 2003;142(1):35-45.
56. Knochenhauer ES, Key TJ, Kahsar-Miller M, Waggoner W, Boots LR, Azziz R. Prevalence of the polycystic ovary syn- drome in unselected black and white women of the south- eastern United States: a prospective study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998;83(9):3078-82.
57. Kesler A, Kliper E, Shenkerman G, Stern N. Idiopathic intra- cranial hypertension is associated with lower body adipos- ity. Ophthalmology 2010;117(1):169-74.
58. Sk au M, Goetze JP, Rehfeld JF, Jensen R. Natriuretic pro- peptides in idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Regul Pept 2010;164(2-3):71-7.
59. Johansson PA, Dziegielewska KM, Ek CJ, Habgood MD, Møllgård K, Potter A, et al. Aquaporin-1 in the choroid plexuses of developing mammalian brain. Cell Tissue Res 2005;322(3):353-64.
60. Ameli PA, Madan M, Chigurupati S, Yu A, Chan SL, Pattisapu JV. Efect of acetazolamide on aquaporin-1 and fuid fow in cultured choroid plexus. Acta Neurochir Suppl 2012;113:59- 64.
61. King LS, Nielsen S, Agre P. Aquaporin-1 water channel pro- tein in lung: ontogeny, steroid-induced expression, and dis- tribution in rat. J Clin Invest 1996;97(10):2183-91.
62. Umenishi F, Schrier RW. Induction of human aquaporin-1 gene by retinoic acid in human erythroleukemia HEL cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2002;293(3):913-7. 63. M a T, Jayaraman S, Wang KS, Song Y, Yang B, Li J, et al.
Defective dietary fat processing in transgenic mice lack- ing aquaporin-1 water channels. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2001;280(1):C126-34.
64. Bloch O, Manley GT. The role of aquaporin-4 in cerebral wa - ter transport and edema. Neurosurg Focus 2007;22(5):E3.
65. Auguste KI, Jin S, Uchida K, Yan D, Manley GT, Papadopoulos MC, Verkman AS. Greatly impaired migration of implanted aquaporin-4-defcient astroglial cells in mouse brain toward a site of injury. FASEB J 2007;21(1):108-16.
66. Bloch O, Auguste KI, Manley GT, Verkman AS. Acceler- ated progression of kaolin-induced hydrocephalus in aquaporin-4-defcient mice. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2006;26(12):1527-37.
67. Waters P, Jarius S, Littleton E, Leite MI, Jacob S, Gray B, et al. Aquaporin-4 antibodies in neuromyelitis optica and longitudinally extensive transverse myelitis. Arch Neurol 2008;65(7):913-9.
68. Dhungana S, Waters P, Ismail A, Woodroofe N, Vincent A, Sharrack B. Absence of aquaporin-4 antibodies in pa- tients with idiopathic intracranial hypertension. J Neurol 2010;257(7):1211-2.
69. Ek izoglu E, Içoz S, Tuzun E, Birisik O, Kocasoy-Orhan E, Ak- man-Demir G, et al. Aquaporin-4 antibodies are not pres- ent in patients with idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Cephalalgia 2012;32(3):198-202.
70. Riggeal BD, Bruce BB, Saindane AM, Ridha MA, Kelly LP, Newman NJ, et al. Clinical course of idiopathic intracranial hypertension with transverse sinus stenosis. Neurology 2013;80(3):289-95.
71. F arb RI, Vanek I, Scott JN, Mikulis DJ, Willinsky RA, Tomlin - son G, et al. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension: the preva- lence and morphology of sinovenous stenosis. Neurology 2003;60(9):1418-24.
72. Bono F, Messina D, Giliberto C, Cristiano D, Broussard G, DAsero S, et al. Bilateral transverse sinus stenosis and id- iopathic intracranial hypertension without papilledema in chronic tension-type headache. J Neurol 2008;255(6):807- 12.
73. Bono F, Messina D, Giliberto C, Cristiano D, Broussard G, Fera F, et al. Bilateral transverse sinus stenosis predicts IIH without papilledema in patients with migraine. Neurology 2006;67(3):419-23.
74. M cGeeney BE, Friedman DI. Pseudotumor cerebri patho- physiology. Headache 2014 Jan 16.
75. King JO, Mitchell PJ, Thomson KR, Tress BM. Manometry combined with cervical puncture in idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Neurology 2002;58(1):26-30.
76. S tevens SA, Previte M, Lakin WD, Thakore NJ, Penar PL, Hamschin B. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension and trans- verse sinus stenosis: a modelling study. Math Med Biol 2007;24(1):85-109.
77. L each JL, Jones BV, Tomsick TA, Stewart CA, Balko MG. Nor- mal appearance of arachnoid granulations on contrast-en- hanced CT and MR of the brain: diferentiation from dural sinus disease. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1996;17(8):1523-32.
78. S trydom MA, Briers N, Bosman MC, Steyn S. The anatomical basis of venographic flling defects of the transverse sinus. Clin Anat 2010;23(2):153-9.
79. P ufer RC, Mustafa W, Lanzino G. Venous sinus stenting for idiopathic intracranial hypertension: a review of the litera- ture. J Neurointerv Surg 2013;5(5):483-6.
80. Ahmed RM, Wilkinson M, Parker GD, Thurtell MJ, Macdonald J, McCluskey PJ, et al. Transverse sinus stenting for idiopath- ic intracranial hypertension: a review of 52 patients and of model predictions. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2011;32(8):1408- 14.
81. Donnet A, Metellus P, Levrier O, Mekkaoui C, Fuentes S, Dufour H, et al. Endovascular treatment of idiopathic intra- cranial hypertension: clinical and radiologic outcome of 10 consecutive patients. Neurology 2008;70(8):641-7.
82. Kumpe DA, Bennett JL, Seinfeld J, Pelak VS, Chawla A, Tierney M. Dural sinus stent placement for idiopathic intracra- nial hypertension. J Neurosurg 2012;116(3):538-48.
83. Radvany MG, Solomon D, Nijjar S, Subramanian PS, Miller NR, Rigamonti D, et al. Visual and neurological outcomes following endovascular stenting for pseudotumor cerebri associated with transverse sinus stenosis. J Neuroophthal- mol 2013;33(2):117-22.
84. Rohr A, Dörner L, Stingele R, Buhl R, Alfke K, Jansen O. Re - versibility of venous sinus obstruction in idiopathic intracra- nial hypertension. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2007;28(4):656-9.
85. Rohr A, Bindeballe J, Riedel C, van Baalen A, Bartsch T, Do- erner L, Jansen O. The entire dural sinus tree is compressed in patients with idiopathic intracranial hypertension: a lon- gitudinal, volumetric magnetic resonance imaging study. Neuroradiology 2012;54:25-33.
86. De Simone R, Marano E, Fiorillo C, Briganti F, Di Salle F, Volpe A, et al. Sudden re-opening of collapsed transverse sinuses and longstanding clinical remission after a single lumbar puncture in a case of idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Pathogenetic implications. Neurol Sci 2005;25(6):342-4.
87. Lee SW, Gates P, Morris P, Whan A, Riddington L. Idiopathic intracranial hypertension; immediate resolution of venous sinus obstruction after reducing cerebrospinal fuid pres- sure to_____10cmH(2)O. J Clin Neurosci 2009;16(12):1690-2.
88. Ba teman GA. Stenoses in idiopathic intracranial hyper- tension: to stent or not to stent? AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2008;29(2):216.
89. Ba teman GA, Stevens SA, Stimpson J. A mathematical mod - el of idiopathic intracranial hypertension incorporating in- creased arterial infow and variable venous outfow collaps- ibility. J Neurosurg 2009;110(3):446-56.
90. De Simone R, Ranieri A, Bonavita V. Advancement in idio- pathic intracranial hypertension pathogenesis: focus on sinus venous stenosis. Neurol Sci 2010;31 Suppl 1:S33-9.
91. Subramanian PS, Haq A. Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis and stenosis in pseudotumor cerebri syndrome. Int Oph- thalmol Clin 2014;54(1):61-71.
92. Bono F, Lupo MR, Lavano A, Mangone L, Fera F, Pardatscher K, et al. Cerebral MR venography of transverse sinuses in sub- jects with normal CSF pressure. Neurology 2003;61(9):1267- 70.
93. Bono F, Giliberto C, Mastrandrea C, Cristiano D, Lavano A, Fera F, et al. Transverse sinus stenoses persist after normaliza- tion of the CSF pressure in IIH. Neurology 2005;65(7):1090- 3.
94. Karahalios DG, Rekate HL, Khayata MH, Apostolides PJ. El - evated intracranial venous pressure as a universal mecha- nism in pseudotumor cerebri of varying etiologies. Neurol- ogy 1996;46(1):198-202.
95. Agarwal P, Kumar M, Arora V. Clinical profle of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis and the role of imaging in its di- agnosis in patients with presumed idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Indian J Ophthalmol 2010;58(2):153-5.
96. Bond DW, Charlton CP, Gregson RM. Drug points: Benign intracranial hypertension secondary to nasal futicasone propionate. BMJ 2001;322(7291):897.
97. Crock PA, McKenzie JD, Nicoll AM, Howard NJ, Cutfeld W, Shield LK, et al. Benign intracranial hypertension and re- combinant growth hormone therapy in Australia and New Zealand. Acta Paediatr 1998;87(4):381-6.
98. Feldman MH, Schlezinger NS. Benign intracranial hyper- tension associated with hypervitaminosis A. Arch Neurol 1970;22(1):1-7.
99. Gardner K, Cox T, Digre KB. Idiopathic intracranial hyperten - sion associated with tetracycline use in fraternal twins: case reports and review. Neurology 1995;45(1):6-10.
100. M alozowski S, Tanner LA, Wysowski DK, Fleming GA, St- adel BV. Benign intracranial hypertension in children with growth hormone defciency treated with growth hormone. J Pediatr 1995;126(6):996-9.
101. Weese-Mayer DE, Yang RJ, Mayer JR, Zaparackas Z. Minocy - cline and Pseudotumor cerebri: The well-known but well- kept secret. Pediatrics 2001;108(2):519-20.
102. S evgi E, Yalcin G, Kansu T, Varli K. Drug induced intracranial hypertension associated with sulphasalazine treatment. Headache 2008;48(2):296-8.
103. Akman-Demir G, Bahar S, Baykan-Kurt B, Gürvit İH, Serdaroğlu P. Intracranial hypertension in Behçets disease. Eur J Neurol 1996;3(1):66-70.
104. Silberstein P, Kottos P, Worner C, Glenn D, Shnier R, Davies M, et al. Dural arteriovenous fstulae causing pseudotu- mour cerebri syndrome in an elderly man. J Clin Neurosci 2003;10(2):242-3.
105. L ee AG, Golnik K, Kardon R, Wall M, Eggenberger E, Yeda - vally S. Sleep apnea and intracranial hypertension in men. Ophthalmology 2002;109(3):482-5.
106. M arcus DM, Lynn J, Miller JJ, Chaudhary O, Thomas D, Chaudhary B. Sleep disorders: a risk factor for pseudotumor cerebri? J Neuroophthalmol 2001;21(2):121-3.
107. Jicha GA, Suarez GA. Pseudotumor cerebri reversed by car- diac septal defect repair. Neurology 2003;60(12):2016-7.
108. Green L, Vinker S, Amital H, Amir T, Bar-Dayan Y, Levi Y, et al. Pseudotumor cerebri in systemic lupus erythematosus. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1995;25(2):103-8.
109. Guy J, Johnston PK, Corbett JJ, Day AL, Glaser JS. Treatment of visual loss in pseudotumor cerebri associated with ure- mia. Neurology 1990;40(1):28-32.
110. Tugal O, Jacobson R, Berezin S, Foreman S, Berezin S, Brud - nicki A, et al. Recurrent benign intracranial hypertension due to iron defciency anemia. Case report and review of the literature. Am J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 1994;16(3):266- 70.
111. Forman EB, OByrne JJ, Capra L, McElnea E, King MD. Idio- pathic intracranial hypertension associated with iron-def- ciency anaemia. Arch Dis Child 2013;98(6):418.
112. Dick man MS, Somasundaram M, Brzozowski L. Pseudotu - mor cerebri and hyperthyroidism. N Y State J Med 1980;80(7 Pt 1):1118-20.
113. P ress OW, Ladenson PW. Pseudotumor cerebri and hypo- thyroidism. Arch Intern Med 1983;143(1):167-8.
114. Back house O, Metcalfe T, Goulding P, McEvoy M, Menage M. Factor V Leiden mutation in association with idiopathic in- tracranial hypertension. Br J Ophthalmol 1998;82(7):844.
115. Glueck CJ, Goldenberg N, Golnik K, Sieve L, Wang P. Idio- pathic intracranial hypertension: associations with throm- bophilia and hypofbrinolysis in men. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost 2005;11(4):441-8.
116. Sussman J , Leach M, Greaves M, Malia R, Davies-Jones GA. Potentially prothrombotic abnormalities of coagulation in benign intracranial hypertension. J Neurol Neurosurg Psy- chiatry 1997;62(3):229-33.
117. Celebisoy N, Gökçay F, Sirin H, Akyürekli O. Treatment of idiopathic intracranial hypertension: topiramate vs ac- etazolamide, an open-label study. Acta Neurol Scand 2007;116(5):322-7.
118. Sinclair AJ, Kuruvath S, Sen D, Nightingale PG, Burdon MA, Flint G. Is cerebrospinal fuid shunting in idiopathic intracra- nial hypertension worthwhile? A 10-year review. Cephalal- gia 2011;31(16):1627-33.
119. Spitz e A, Malik A, Lee AG. Surgical and endovascular inter- ventions in idiopathic intracranial hypertension. Curr Opin Neurol 2014;27(1):69-74.
120. Ahmed R, Friedman DI, Halmagyi GM. Stenting of the trans- verse sinuses in idiopathic intracranial hypertension. J Neu- roophthalmol 2011;31(4):374-80.