COVID-19 PANDEMİSİNDE GÜNAH KEÇİSİ MEKANİZMASININ KURBANLARI OLARAK GÖÇMENLER

COVID-19 pandemisinde, hastalığı yabancıların yol açtığı bir tehdit olarak inşa etme stratejisi ve suçu “öteki”nin sırtına yükleme girişimleri salgınla el ele yürüdü. Suçlayıcı işaret parmakları çoğunlukla göçmenlere yöneldi. Göçmenlerin virüsün potansiyel taşıyıcıları olduğuna ve ölümcül bir sağlık tehdidi oluşturduğuna dair yabancı düşmanı retorik, göçü engellemeyi savunan popülist politikacılar için merkezi bir tema haline geldi. Bazı hükümetler, virüsün yayılmasını kontrol altına alma bahanesiyle, göçmenlere yönelik katı göç politikalarını meşrulaştırmak için pandemiyi araçsallaştırdı. Bu makale, kriz dönemlerinde göçmenleri günah keçisi yapma eğiliminin kuramsal bir açıklamasını sunmaya çalışmaktadır. Ayrıca güvenilir medya kuruluşlarından gelen haber raporlarını ve uluslararası örgütler tarafından hazırlanan yayınları inceleyerek COVID-19 için göçmenleri suçlama pratiklerini değerlendirmektedir. Çalışma, bazı politikacıların, göçmen karşıtlığına meşruiyet kazandırmak için COVID-19’u araçsallaştırarak göçmenleri günah keçisi yaptıklarını; popülist milliyetçi eğilimlere sahip oldukları belirlenen bu politikacıların salgını bir dış tehdit olarak inşa etmek amacıyla söylemlerinde savaş, düşman, istila gibi metaforlar kullandıklarını; göçmenleri suçlama eğiliminin tarihsel ve kültürel ön yargılara dayandığını ve infodeminin günah keçisi mekanizmasını ateşleyen en önemli faktörlerden biri olduğunu gözler önüne sermektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler:

COVID-19, Günah Keçisi, Göçmen, Politik Araçsallaştırma, Popülizm, İnfodemi

IMMIGRANTS AS VICTIMS OF THE SCAPEGOAT MECHANISM IN THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC

In the COVID-19 pandemic, the strategy of constructing the disease as a threat caused by foreigners, and attempts to put the blame on the "other" went hand in hand with the outbreak. The accusatory index fingers were mostly aimed at immigrants. The xenophobic rhetoric that immigrants are potential carriers of the virus and pose a deadly health threat has become a central theme for populist politicians advocating curbing immigration. Under the pretext of containing the spread of the virus, some governments have instrumentalized the pandemic to justify strict immigration policies towards immigrants. This article attempts to provide a theoretical explanation of the tendency to scapegoat immigrants in crises. In addition, the news reports from reliable media organizations and the publications prepared by international organizations are examined and the practices of blaming immigrants for COVID-19 are evaluated. The study reveals that some politicians scapegoated immigrants by instrumentalizing COVID-19 to legitimize anti-immigration and these politicians, who were determined to have populist nationalist tendencies, used metaphors such as war, enemy, invasion in their discourses in order to construct the outbreak as an external threat. The study also displays that the tendency to blame immigrants is based on historical and cultural prejudices and that the infodemic is one of the most important factors that ignite the scapegoat mechanism

Keywords:

COVID-19, Scapegoating, Immigrant, Political Instrumentalization, Populism, Infodemic,

PDF

___

Addo, I. Y. (2020). Double pandemic: Racial discrimination amid coronavirus disease 2019. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 2 (1), 1-4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2020.100074
Ahmad, N. (2020, June 12). Migrants in Malaysia: Scapegoats in times of crises. MIDEQ. https://www.mideq.org/fr/blog/migrants-malaysia-scapegoats-times-crises/
Aljazeera. (2020, June 26). Can’t take any more Rohingya refugees: Malaysia PM at ASEAN meet. Aljazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/6/26/cant-take-any-more-rohingya-refugees-malaysia-pm-at-asean-meet
Ashley, C. (2020, August 27). Definition of scapegoat, scapegoating, and scapegoat theory. ToughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/scapegoat-definition-3026572
Azagarian, Y. M. (1997). Systems-centered therapy for groups. New York: The Guilford Press.
Bachelet, M., & Grandi, F. (2020, March 12). The coronavirus outbreak is a test of our systems, values and humanity. UN United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). https://www.unhcr.org/news/latest/2020/3/5e69eea54/coronavirus-outbreak-test-systems-values-humanity.html
Barrett, R., & Brown, P. J. (2008). Stigma in the time of influenza: Social and institutional responses to pandemic emergencies. J Infect Dis., 15 (197), 34-37.
Bauman, Z. (2018). Sosyolojik düşünmek. (Çev. A. Yılmaz). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. (Özgün çalışma 1996).
Bauomy, S. (2020, March 6). COVID-19 and xenophobia: Why outbreaks are often accompanied by racism. Euronews. https://www.euronews.com/2020/03/05/covid-19-and-xenophobia-why-outbreaks-are-often-accompanied-by-racism
Bavel, J. J. V., Baicker, K., Boggio, P. S., Capraro, V., Cichocka, A., Cikara, M., … Willer, R. (2020). Using social and behavioural science to support COVID-19 pandemic response. Nature Human Behaviour, 4, 460-471. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-0884-z
Bouattia, M. (2020, June 5). It's Tory austerity and racism that's killing us, not Covid-19. The New Arab. https://english.alaraby.co.uk/opinion/state-led-austerity-and-racism-are-killing-us-not-covid-19
British Broadcasting Corporation [BBC]. (2020a, April 21). Coronavirus: Immigration to US to be suspended amid pandemic, Trump says. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-52363852
British Broadcasting Corporation [BBC]. (2020b, March 9). Letter from Africa: The spread of coronavirus prejudice in Kenya. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-51770856
Burke, K. (1945). A grammar of motives. [Prentice Hall version]. Retrieved from http://www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/kenneth_burke__a_grammar_of_motives_1945.pdf
Calma, J. (2020, April 21). Migrants aren’t to blame for COVID-19. The Verge. https://www.theverge.com/2020/3/27/21196100/immigration-borders-covid-19-coronavirus
Campbell, C. (2020). Günah keçisi: Başkalarını suçlamanın tarihi. (Çev. G. Kastamonulu). İstanbul: İthaki Yayınları. (Özgün çalışma 2011).
Chapman, C. M., & Miller, D. S. (2020). From metaphor to militarized response: the social implications of “we are at war with COVID-19” – crisis, disasters, and pandemics yet to come. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 40 (9-10), 1107-1124. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSSP-05-2020-0163
Chicago Sun Times Editorial Board. (2020, April 21). Trump’s feeble plan to beat COVID-19? Scapegoat immigrants. Chicago Sun Times. https://chicago.suntimes.com/2020/4/21/21230025/donald-trump-executive-order-immigration-coronavirus-covid-green-cards-19-editorial
Cole, D. (2020, August 29). Why scapegoating is a typical human response to a pandemic. National Public Radio (NPR). https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2020/08/29/906225199/why-scapegoating-is-a-typical-human-response-to-a-pandemic
Devakumar, D., Shannon, G., Bhopal, S. S., & Abubakar, I. (2020). Racism and discrimination in COVID-19 responses. The Lancet, 395 (10231), 1194. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30792-3
Dumouchel, P. (2020). Migrants and scapegoats. Sociologia, 2, 48-53. Ee, S. (2017). Scapegoating: What it is and how to understand it. Retrieved from https://thepsychpractice.com/plog/2017/11/15/scapegoating-what-it-is-and-how-to-understand-it
Einashe, I. (2020, December 25). How Italy used the year of COVID-19 to scapegoat migrants. Daily Beast. https://www.thedailybeast.com/how-italy-used-the-year-of-covid-19-to-scapegoat-migrants?ref=scroll
Elias, A., Ben, J., Mansouri, F., & Paradies, Y. (2021). Racism and nationalism during and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 44 (5), 783-793. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2020.1851382
Ellison, L. L. (2017). Scapegoating. In J. Carlson and S. B. Dermer (Eds.), The SAGE Encyclopedia of Marriage, Family, and Couples Counseling, vol. 4, (pp. 1449-1452). Huntington, WV: Marshall University, Marshall Digital Scholar.
Falkenhain, M., Flick, U., Hirseland, A., Naji, S., Seidelsohn, K., & Verlage, T. (2021). Setback in labour market integration due to the Covid-19 crisis? An explorative insight on forced migrants’ vulnerability in Germany. European Societies, 23 (sup. 1), 448-463. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616696.2020.1828976
Ferreira, C. M., & Serpa, S. (2021). COVID-19 stigma and charismatic social relationship: A legitimization narrative of president Trump’s status as a charismatic leader following a SARS-CoV-2 infection reported by the Portuguese Media. Societies, 11 (130), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc11040130
Fischer, L. S., Mansergh, G., Lynch, J., & Santibanez, S. (2019). Addressing disease-related stigma during infectious outbreaks. Disaster Med Public Health Prep., 13 (5-6), 989-994.
Fratzke, S. (2020, April 17). The COVID-19 excuse? How migration policies are hardening around the globe / Interviewer: Eric Reidy [Real Media File]. Retrieved from , https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/analysis/2020/04/17/coronavirus-global-migration-policies-exploited?utm_source=The+New+Humanitarian&utm_campaign=32b875599b-, EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_04_17_2020_DAILY&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_d842d98289-32b875599b-15721989
Frazer, J. G. (2019). Günah keçisi. (Çev. İ. H. Yılmaz). İstanbul: Pinhan Yayıncılık. (Özgün çalışma 1913).
Galea, S. (2020, February 28). How to think about COVID-19. Fortune. https://fortune.com/2020/02/28/how-to-think-about-covid-19-coronavirus/
Ghebreyesus, T. A. (2020a, February 15). Munich Security Conference [Speech]. https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/munich-security-conference
Ghebreyesus, T. A. (2020b, May 6). WHO Director-General's opening remarks at the media briefing on COVID-19 [Media briefing]. https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19---6-may-2020
Giddens, A., & Sutton, P. W. (2016). Sosyoloji. (Çev. M. Şenol). İstanbul: Kırmızı Yayınları. (Özgün çalışma 1989).
Girard, R. (2018). Günah keçisi (Çev. I. Ergüden). İstanbul: Alfa Basım Yayım Dağıtım San. ve Tic. Ltd. Şti. (Özgün çalışma 1982).
Gostoli, Y. (2020, March, 3). How European populists are using coronavirus as a political tool. Aljazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/3/3/how-european-populists-are-using-coronavirus-as-a-political-tool
Guadagno, L. (2020). Migrants and the COVID-19 pandemic: An initial analysis (United Nations, International Organization for Migration, Migration Research Series No. 60). https://publications.iom.int/books/mrs-no-60-migrants-and-covid-19-pandemic-initial-analysis
Guterres, A. (2020, Mayıs 8). Covid-19 ayrım yapmazken, nefret ve yabancı düşmanlığı tsunami gibi yayılmaya devam ediyor. Euronews. https://tr.euronews.com/2020/05/08/guterres-covid-19-ayr-m-yapmazken-nefret-ve-yabanc-dusmanl-g-tsunam-gibi-yay-lmaya-devam-e
Hu, Y. (2020). Intersecting ethnic and native-migrant inequalities in the economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the UK. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 68, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rssm.2020.100528
Human Rights Watch. (2020). End violent threats and anti-Rohingya campaign [Joint letter]. Retrieved from https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/media_2020/05/200511%20Malaysia%20Rohingya%20hate%20speech.pdf
Independent. (2020, July 15). Ethiopian migrants in Yemen are being scapegoated over coronavirus, UN reports. Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/coronavirus-ethiopian-migrants-yemen-un-a9620196.html
International Organization for Migration [IOM]. (2019). Migrant. In Glossary on Migration. Retrieved from April 24, 2021, from https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/iml_34_glossary.pdf
International Organization for Migration [IOM]. (2020). Tens of thousands of migrants stranded in Yemen fear for their lives [Press release]. https://www.iom.int/news/tens-thousands-migrants-stranded-yemen-fear-their-lives
Jakovlyevic, M., Jakovlyevic, I., Bjedov, S., & Mustac, F. (2020). Psychiatry for better world: COVID-19 and blame games people play from public and global mental health perspective. Psychiatria Danubina, 32 (2), 221-228. https://doi.org/10.24869/psyd.2020.221
Jillson, C. (2020). Costa Rica’s neighbor, intruder, and essential worker. NACLA Report on the Americas, 52 (4), 385-390. https://doi.org/10.1080/10714839.2020.1840163
John Hopkins Center for Health Security [JHCHS]. (2020). Blame and discrimination attached to COVID-19: An FAQ for US elected leaders and health officers [Fact sheet]. Retrieved from https://www.centerforhealthsecurity.org/resources/COVID-19/COVID-19-fact-sheets/200205-nCoV-leadersAgainstStigma.pdf
Johnson, J. H., & Bonds, J. M. (2020). Scapegoating immigrants in the Covid-19 pandemic [White paper]. Frank Hawkins Institute of Private Enterprise. https://kenaninstitute.unc.edu/wp content/uploads/2020/08/Scapegoating_Immigrants.pdf
Keil, R. (2020, February 4). The new coronavirus is not an excuse to be racist / Interviewer: Eleanor Cummins [Real Media File]. Retrieved from https://www.theverge.com/2020/2/4/21121358/coronavirus-racism-social-media-east-asian-chinese-xenophobia
Kishlansky, M., Geary, P., & O’Brien, P. (2006). Civilization in the West. New York: Pearson Education.
Kumar, A., & Nayar, K. R. (2020). COVID-19: Stigma, discrimination, and the blame game. International Journal of Mental Health, 49 (4), 382-384. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207411.2020.1809935
Lai, G. (2020, June 4). Scapegoating Hong Kong’s minorities over Covid-19 is dangerous – here’s how to avoid it. Hong Kong Free Press. https://hongkongfp.com/2020/06/04/scapegoating-hong-kongs-minorities-over-covid-19-is-dangerous-heres-how-to-avoid-it/
Liem, A., Wang, C., Wariyanti, Y., Latkin, C. A., & Hall, B. J. (2020). The neglected health of international migrant workers in the COVID-19 epidemic. The Lancet, 7 (4), e20. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30076-6
Lovelock, J. (2020, December 21). Myanmar migrants easy scapegoats for Covid-19 spike in Thailand. UCA News. https://www.ucanews.com/news/myanmar-migrants-easy-scapegoats-for-covid-19-spike-in-thailand/90758#
Man, F. (2016). “Günah keçileri” ya da “olağan şüpheliler” olarak Suriyeliler. Çalışma ve Toplum, 3 (50), 1147-1170.
Manzi, L. (2020). Migrants: The scapegoats of the economic crisis. International Organization for Migration (IOM). https://rosanjose.iom.int/SITE/en/blog/migrants-scapegoats-economic-crisis
Markel, H., & Stern, A. M. (2002). The foreignness of germs: The persistent association of immigrants and disease in American society. Milbank Quarterly, 80 (4), 757-788.
McAuliffe, M., & Bauloz, C. (2020, April 28). The coronavirus pandemic could be devastating for the world's migrants. Open Democracy. https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/pandemic-border/coronavirus-pandemic-could-be-devastating-worlds-migrants/
Molloy, T., & McDonnell, S. (2020, August 1). Councillor suspended after blaming illegal immigrants, NHS and the Chinese for local lockdown. Manchester Evening News. https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/greater-manchester-news/councillor-suspended-after-blaming-illegal-18693448
Mukhtar, S. (2021). Psychology and politics of COVID-19 misinfodemics: Why and how do people believe in misinfodemics? International Sociology, 36 (1), 111-123. https://doi.org/10.1177/0268580920948807
Musu, C. (2020, April 8). War metaphors used for COVID-19 are compelling but also dangerous. The Conservation. https://theconversation.com/war-metaphors-used-for-covid-19-are-compelling-but-also-dangerous-135406
Mutter, J. (2016, April 18). Opportunity from crisis. Foreign Affairs. Retrieved from https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2016-04-18/opportunity-crisis
Nossem, E. (2020). The pandemic of nationalism and the nationalism of pandemics (UniGR-CBS Working Paper Vol. 8). https://ubt.opus.hbz-nrw.de/opus45-ubtr/frontdoor/deliver/index/docId/1405/file/UniGR-CBS-Working+Paper+Vol.+8.pdf
Omalar, M., Marcelline, M., & Mateeullah. (2021, February 1). Covid-19 misinformation: Scapegoating migrants and minorities. Guiti News. https://guitinews.fr/around-the-world/2021/02/01/covid-19-misinformation/
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD]. (2020). What is the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on immigrants and their children? (Policy Brief). Retrieved from https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/view/?ref=137_137245-8saheqv0k3&title=What-is-the-impact-of-the-COVID-19-pandemic-on-immigrants-and-their-children%3F&_ga=2.251598212.363294391.1634814004-136990516.1613641804
Pierce, S. (2020, April 21). Migrants aren’t to blame for COVID-19/ Interviewer: Justin Calma [Real Media File]. Retrieved from https://www.theverge.com/2020/3/27/21196100/immigration-borders-covid-19-coronavirus
Pulido, C. M., Villarejo-Carballido, B., Redondo-Sama, G., & Gomez, A. (2020). COVID-19 infodemic: More retweets for science-based information on coronavirus than for false information. International Sociology, 35 (4), 377-392. https://doi.org/10.1177/0268580920914755
Rafiq, S. (2020, April 9). Open borders: Scapegoat in COVID-19 response. Yale Global Online. https://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/open-borders-scapegoat-covid-19-response
Reidy, E. (2020, April 17). The COVID-19 excuse? How migration policies are hardening around the globe. The New Humanitarian. https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/analysis/2020/04/17/coronavirus-global-migration-policies-exploited?utm_source=The+New+Humanitarian&utm_campaign=32b875599b-EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_04_17_2020_DAILY&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_d842d98289-32b875599b-15721989
Rohac, D. (2020, March 25). Hungary’s prime minister is using the virus to make an authoritarian power grab. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2020/03/25/hungarys-prime-minister-is-using-virus-make-an-authoritarian-power-grab/
Seixas, E. C. (2021). War metaphors in political communication on covid-19. Frontiers in Sociolgy, 5, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2020.583680
Shah, S. (2020, February 3). The pandemic of xenophobia and scapegoating. Time. https://time.com/5776279/pandemic-xenophobia-scapegoating/
Shams, T. (2020, August 29). Why scapegoating is a typical human response to a pandemic. / Interviewer: Diane Cole [Real Media File]. Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2020/08/29/906225199/why-scapegoating-is-a-typical-human-response-to-a-pandemic
Shenassa, C. R. (2001). The scapegoat mechanism in human group processes. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Union Institute and University, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
Solano, H. (2020, Abril 10). Vicepresidenta en visita a frontera norte: lo gue hacemos es protegernos nosotros. Crhoy.com. https://www.crhoy.com/nacionales/vicepresidenta-en-visita-a-frontera-norte-lo-que-hacemos-es-protegernos-nosotros/
Steinmeier, F. W. (2020, October 25). World Health Summit 2020 [Opening Speech]. https://www.worldhealthsummit.org/fileadmin/user_upload/4_Documents/4.12_2020/201025-Steinmeier-World-Health-Summit-Englisch.pdf
Suggs, V. P. (1989). Girard and the scapegoat mechanism: An application to Hawthorne’s fiction. (Unpublished master’s thesis). The University of Alabama, Huntsville, Alabama, USA.
The Guardian. (2020, February 24). Salvini attacks Italy PM over coronavirus and links to rescue ship. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/24/salvini-attacks-italy-pm-over-coronavirus-and-links-to-rescue-ship
Thepgumpanat, P., Naing, S., & Tostevin, M. (2020, December 24). Anti-Myanmar hate speech flares in Thailand over virüs. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/business/media-telecom/anti-myanmar-hate-speech-flares-thailand-over-virus-2020-12-24/
Trump, D. [@realDonaldTrump]. (2020a, March 10). Going up fast. We need the wall more than ever! [Tweet]. Retrieved from https://twitter.com/realDonaldTrump/status/1237334397172490240
Trump, D. [@realDonaldTrump]. (2020b, April 20). In light of the attack from the Invisible Enemy, as well as the need to protect the jobs of our GREAT American Citizens, I will be signing an Executive Order to temporarily suspend immigration into the United States! [Tweet]. Retrieved from https://twitter.com/realdonaldtrump/status/1252418369170501639?lang=en.
United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. (2020a). Leave no one behind: Racial discrimination and the protection of minorities in the COVID-19 crisis [Statement by the United Nations Network on Racial Discrimination and the Protection of Minorities]. https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Minorities/UN_Network_Racial_Discrimination_Minorities_COVID.pdf
United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. (2020b). Bulgaria / COVID-19 response: Stop hate speech and racial discrimination against the Roma minority [Statement by the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]. https://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=25881&LangID=E U. S. Embassy in Ethiopia. (2020, March 18). Reports of anti-foreigner sentiment [Security alert]. Retrieved from https://et.usembassy.gov/security-alert-reports-of-anti-foreigner-sentiment/
van Daalen, K. R., Cobain, M., Franco, O. H., & Chowdhury, R. (2021). Stigma: The social virus spreading faster than COVID-19. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 75 (4), 313-314. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech-2020-214436
Varennes, F. (2020, March 30). COVID-19 fears should not be exploited to attack and exclude minorities [Press release]. https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=25757&LangID=E
Vrecko Ilç, B., & Sabic, Z. (2021). American anti-Chinese racism during the COVID-19 crisis and its strategic functions. Teorija In Praksa, 58, 670-688.
Wallis, E. (2020, August 24). Sicily’s governor orders closure of all migrant hotspots and welcome centers. Info Migrants. https://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/26815/sicilys-governor-orders-closure-of-all-migrant-hotspots-and-welcome-centers
Williams, R. (2020, July 31). Tory MP mondende for blaming BAME and Muslim people for rise in coronavirus cases. Sky News. https://news.sky.com/story/tory-mp-condemned-for-blaming-bame-and-muslim-people-for-rise-in-coronavirus-cases-12039949
Woods, E. T., Schertzer, R., Greenfeld, L., Hughes, C., & Miller-Idriss, C. (2020). COVID-19, nationalism, and the politics of crisis: A scholarly exchange. Nations and Nationalism, 26, 807-825. https://doi.org/10.1111/nana.12644
World Health Organization [WHO]. (‎2020)‎. An ad hoc WHO technical consultation managing the COVID-19 infodemic: call for action, 7-8 April 2020. World Health Organization. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240010314 World Refugee Council. (2018). Xenophobia toward refugees and other forced migrants (Research paper no. 5). Retrieved from https://www.cigionline.org/publications/xenophobia-toward-refugees-and-other-forced-migrants/
York, G. (2020, March 19). Coronavirus triggers xenophobia in some African countries. The Globe and Mail. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/world/article-coronavirus-triggers-xenophobia-in-some-african-countries/
Zargar, H. (2020, March 19). Far right uses coronavirus to scapegoat refugees. New Frame. https://www.newframe.com/far-right-uses-coronavirus-to-scapegoat-refugees/
Žižek, S. (2021). Is barbarism with a human face our fate? Critical Inquiry, 47 (S2), 4-8.