Effects of the Covid-19 pandemic on brain and behavior

The Covid-19 viral infection, which was first detected in Wuhan, China at the end of 2019, spread rapidly around the world and turned into a major pandemic. At the time this article was written, Covid-19 has infected more than 250 million people worldwide, causing close to 5 million deaths. In addition to the fact that Covid-19 is a lytic infection, its easy spread through the respiratory tract required a social isolation that people were not accustomed in the pandemic period. Social isolation and economic losses caused significant social and psychological problems in society. On the other hand, Covid-19 also has direct effects on the central nervous system (CNS), and these effects may be responsible for some serious early or late neuropsychic disorders. In addition, acute symptoms of infection involved in respiratory system failure and cytokine storm, and vaccination activities were discussed detailed. Although neurological problems such as seizure, encephalitis, anosmia, dysgeusia, stroke and delirium are discussed to a certain extent, current data on psychological and/or psychiatric problems due to pandemic itself or the virus are remaining limited. In this review article, it is aimed to evaluate the effects of Covid-19 on brain and mental health in the light of current data. In addition, the literature on neuropsychiatric side effects of vaccines approved for emergency use was also reviewed.

PDF

___

[1] Nafees MU, Ullah SA, Khalil AA, Roohullah M, Muhammad A. Pandemics of influenza viruses and coronaviruses; past and present. Bull Environ Pharmacol Life Sci. 2020; 9: 167-171.
[2] Khan M, Adil SF, Alkhathlan H, Tahir MN, Saif S, Khan M, Khan ST. Covid-19: A global challenge with old history, epidemiology and progress so far. Molecules. 2021; 26: 39.
[3] Koralnik IJ, Tyler KL. Covid-19: a global threat to the nervous system. Ann Neurol. 2020; 88: 1-11.
[4] Ren Li, Wang Y, Wu Z, Xiang ZC, Guo Li, Xu T, Jiang YZ, Xiong Y, Li YJ, Li XW, Li H, Fan GH, Gu X-Y, Xiao Y, Gao H, Xu JY, Yang F, Wang XM, Wu C, Chen L, Liu YW, Liu B, Yang J, Wang XR, Dong J, Li L, Huang CL, Zhao JP, Hu Y, Cheng ZS, Liu LL, Qian ZH, Qin C, Jin Q, Cao B, Wang JW. Identification of a novel coronavirus causing severe pneumonia in human: a descriptive study. Chin Med J. 2020; 133: 1015-1024.
[5] Lovato A, de Filippis C. Clinical presentation of COVID-19: A systematic review focusing on upper airway symptoms. Ear Nose Throat J. 2020; 99: 569-576.
[6] Gavriatopoulou M, Korompoki E, Fotiou D, Ntanasis-Stathopoulos I, Psaltopoulou T, Kastritis E, Terpos E, Dimopoulos MA. Organ-specific manifestations of COVID-19 infection. Clin Exp Med. 2020; 20: 493-506.
[7] Park YJ, Farooq J, Cho J, Sadanandan N, Cozene B, Gonzales-Portillo B, Saft M, Borlongan MC, Borlongan MC, Shytle RD, Willing AE, Garbuzova-Davis S, Sanberg PR, Borlongan CV. Fighting the war against Covid-19 via cell-based regenerative medicine: Lessons learned from 1918 Spanish Flu and other previous pandemics. Stem Cell Rev Rep. 2021; 17: 9-32.
[8] Burgess HL, Braithwaite JJ, Singleton E, Young AM, Cooper MK. Covid-19: Race for a vaccine. HCA Healthcare J. 2020; 1: 463-474.
[9] Burgess HL, Castelein C, Rubio A, Cooper MK. COVID-19: The vaccine race continues. HCA Healthcare J. 2021; 2: 81-91.
[10] Desforges M, Le Coupanec A, Brison E, Meessen-Pinard M, Talbot PJ. Neuroinvasive and neurotropic human respiratory coronaviruses: potential neurovirulent agents in humans. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2014; 807: 75-96.
[11] Desforges M, Le Coupanec A, Dubeau P, Bourgouin A, Lajoie L, Dubé M, Talbot PJ. Human coronaviruses and othe respiratory viruses: Underestimated opportunistic pathogens of the central nervous system? Viruses. 2019; 12: 14.
[12] Bohmwald K, Gálvez NMS, Ríos M, Kalergis AM. Neurologic alterations due to respiratory virus infections. Front Cell Neurosci. 2018; 12: 386.
[13] Nuzzo D, Picone P. Potential neurological effects of severe Covid-19 infection. Neurosci Res. 2020; 158: 1-5.
[14] Stevens RD, Puybasset L. The brain-lung-brain axis. Intensive Care Care Med. 2011; 37: 1054-1056.
[15] Saleki K, Banazadeh M, Saghazadeh A, Rezai N. The involvement of the central nervous system in patients with Covid-19. Rev Neurosci. 2020; 31: 453-456.
[16] Asadi-Pooya AA, Simani L. Central nervous system manifestations of Covid-19: A systematic review. J Neurol Sci. 2020; 413: 116832.
[17] Katal S, Balakrishnan S, Gholamrezanezhad A. Neuroimaging and neurologic findings in Covid-19 and other coronavirus infections: A systematic review in 116 patients. J Neuroradiol. 2021; 48: 43-50.
[18] Nazari S, Jafari AA, Mirmoeeni S, Sadeghian S, Heidari ME, Sadeghian S, Assarzadegan F, Puormand SM, Ebadi H, Fathi D, Dalvant S. Central nervous system manifestations in Covid-19 patients: A systematic review and metaanalysis. Brain Behav. 2021; 11(5): e02025.
[19] Moriguchi T, Harii N, Goto J, Harada D, Sugawara H, Takamino J, Ueno M, Sakata H, Kondo K, Myose N, Nakao A, Takeda M, Haro H, Inoue O, Suzuki-Inoue K, Kubokawa K, Ogihara S, Sasaki T, Kinouchi H, Kojin H, Ito M, Onishi H, Shimizu T, Sasaki Y, Enomoto N, Ishihara H, Furuya S, Yamamoto T, Shimada S. A first case of meningitis/encephalitis associated with SARS-Coronavirus-2. Int J Infect Dis. 2020; 95: 55-58.
[20] Zhou Z, Kang H, Li S, Zhao X. Understanding the neurotropic characteristics of SARS-CoV-2: from neurological manifestations of COVID-19 to potential neurotropic mechanisms. J Neurol. 2020; 267: 2179-2184.
[21] Natoli S, Oliveira V, Calabresi P, Maia LF, Pisani A. Does SARS-Cov-2 invade the brain? Translational lessons from animal models. Eur J Neurol. 2020; 27: 1764-1773.
[22] Desforges M, Le Coupanec A, Stodola JK, Meessen-Pinard M, Talbot PJ. Human coronaviruses: viral and cellular factors involved in neuroinvasiveness and neuropathogenesis. Virus Res. 2014; 194: 145-158.
[23] Swanson PA 2nd, McGawern DB. Viral diseases of the central nervous system. Curr Opin Virol. 2015; 11: 44-54.
[24] Baig AM, Khaleeq A, Ali U, Syeda H. Evidence of the COVID-19 virus targeting the CNS: Tissue distribution, hostvirus interaction, and proposed neurotropic mechanisms. ACS Chem Neurosci. 2020; 11: 995-998.
[25] Xu H, Zhong L, Deng J, Peng J, Dan H, Zeng X, Li T, Chen Q. High expression of ACE2 receptor of 2019-nCoV on the epithelial cells of oral mucosa. Int J Oral Sci. 2020; 12(1): 8.
[26] van Riel D, Verdijk R, Kuiken T. The olfactory nerve: a shortcut for influenza and other viral diseases into the central nervous system. J Pathol. 2015; 235: 277-287.
[27] Wu P, Duan F, Luo C, Liu Q, Qu X, Liang L, Wu K. Characteristics of ocular findings of patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Hubei Province, China. JAMA Ophtalmol. 2020; 138: 575-578.
[28] Wu Z, McGoogan JM. Characteristics of and important lessons from the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in China: Summary of a report of 72 314 cases from the Chinese center for disease control and prevention. JAMA. 2020; 323: 1239-1242.
[29] Netland J, Meyerholz DK, Moore S, Cassell M, Perlman S. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection causes neuronal death in the absence of encephalitis in mice transgenic for human ACE2. J Virol. 2008; 82: 7264-7275.
[30] Wu Y, Xu X, Chen Z, Duan J, Hashimoto K, Yang L, Liu C, Yang C. Nervous system involvement after infection with COVID-19 and other coronaviruses. Brain Behav Immun. 2020; 87: 18-22.
[31] Poyiadji N, Shahin G, Noujaim D, Stone M, Patel S, Griffith B. COVID-19-associated acute hemorrhagic necrotizing encephalopathy: Imaging features. Radiology. 2020; 296: E119-E120.
[32] Zhao H, Shen D, Zhou H, Liu J, Chen S. Guillain-Barré syndrome associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection: causality or coincidence? Lancet Neurol. 2020; 19: 383-384.
[33] Bridwell R, Long B, Gottlieb M. Neurologic complications of Covid-19. Am J Emerg Med. 2020; 38(7): 1549.e3-1549.e7.
[34] Montalvan V, Lee J, Bueso T, De Toledo J, Rivas K. Neurological manifestations of COVID-19 and other coronavirus infections: A systematic review. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2020; 194: 105921.
[35] Pierron D, Pereda-Loth V, Mantel M, Moranges M, Bignon E, Alva O, Kabous J, Heiske M, Pacalon J, David R, Dinnella C, Spinelli S, Monteleone E, Farruggia MC, Cooper KW, Sell EA, Thomas-Danguin T, Bakke AJ, Parma V, Hayes JE, Letellier T, Ferdenzi C, Golebiowski J, Bensafi M. Smell and taste changes are early indicators of the COVID-19 pandemic and political decision effectiveness. Nat Commun. 2020; 11: 5152.
[36] Zahra SA, Iddawela S, Pillai K, Choudhury RY, Harky A. Can symptoms of anosmia, dysgeusia be diagnostic for Covid-19. Brain Behav. 2020; 10(11): e01839.
[37] Tong JY, Wong A, Zhu D, Fastenberg JH, Tham T. The prevalence of olfactory and gustatory dysfunction in COVID19 patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2020; 163: 3-11.
[38] Leung TYM, Chan AYL, Chan EW, Chan VKY, Chui CSL, Cowling BJ, Gao L, G MQ, Hung IFN, Ip MSM, Ip P, Lau K, Lau CS, Lau LKW, Leung WK, Li X, Luo H, Man KKC, Ng VWS, Siu CW, Wan EYF, Wing YK, Wong CSM, Wong KHT, Wong ICK. Short- and potential long-term adverse health outcomes of Covid-19: A rapid review. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2020; 9: 2190-2199.
[39] Mazzoli M, Molinari MA, Tondelli M, Giovanni G, Ricceri R, Ciolli L, Picchetto L, Meletti S. Olfactory function and viral recovery in Covid-19. Brain Behav. 2021; 11(3): e02006.
[40] Lechien JR, Chiesa-Estomba CM, De Siati DR, Horoi M, Le Bon SD, Rodriguez A, Dequanter D, Blecic S, El Afia F, Distinguin L, Chekkoury-Idrissi Y, Hans S, Delgado IL, Calvo-Henriquez C, Lavigne P, Falanga C, Barillari MR, Cammaroto G, Khalife M, Leich P, Souchay C, Rossi C, Journe F, Hsieh J, Edjlali M, Carlier R, Ris L, Lovato A, De Filippis C, Coppee F, Fakhry N, Ayad T, Saussez S. Olfactory and gustatory dysfunctions as a clinical presentation of mild-to-moderate forms of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19): a multicenter European study. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2020; 277: 2251-2261.
[41] Shepherd GM. Smell images and the flavour system in the human brain. Nature. 2006; 444: 316-321.
[42] Green BG. Chemesthesis and the chemical senses as components of a “chemofensor complex.” Chem Senses. 2012; 37: 201-206.
[43] Parma V, Ohla K, Veldhuizen MG, Niv MY, Kelly CE, Bakke AJ, Cooper KW, Bouysset C, Pirastu N, Dibattista M, Kaur R, Liuzza MT, Pepino MY, Schöpf V, Pereda-Loth V, Olsson SB, Gerkin RC, Domínguez PR, Albayay J, Farruggia MC, Bhutani S, Fjaeldstad AW, Kumar R, Menini A, Bensafi B, Sandell M, Konstantinidis Iordanis, Di Pizio A, Genovese F, Öztürk L, Thomas-DanguinT, Frasnelli J, Boesveldt S, Saatci Ö, Saraiva LR, Lin C, Golebiowski J, Hwang L-D, Ozdener MH, Guàrdia MD, Laudamiel C, Ritchie M, Havlícek J, Pierron D, Roura E, Navarro M, Nolden AA, Lim J, Whitcroft KL, Colquitt LR, Ferdenzi C, Brindha EV, Altundag A, Macchi A, Nunez-Parra A, Patel ZM, Fiorucci S, Philpott CM, Smith BC, Lundström JN, Mucignat C, Parker KJ, van den Brink M, Schmuker M, Fischmeister FPhS, Heinbockel T, Shields VDC, Faraji F, Santamaría E, Fredborg WEA, Morini G, Olofsson JK, Jalessi M, Karni N, D'Errico A, Alizadeh R, Pellegrino R, Meyer P, Huart C, Chen B, Soler GM, Alwashahi MK, WelgeLüssen A, Freiherr J, de Groot JHB, Klein H, Okamoto M, Singh PB, Hsieh JW, GCCR Group Author; Reed DR, Hummel T, Munger SD, Hayes JE. More than smell-COVID-19 is associated with severe impairment of smell, taste, and chemesthesis. Chem Senses. 2020; 45: 609-622.
[44] Ellul MA, Benjamin L, Singh B, Lant S, Michael BD, Easton A, Kneen R, Defres S, Sejvar J, Solomon T. Neurological associations of COVID-19. Lancet Neurol. 2020; 19: 767-783.
[45] Slooter AJC, Otte WM, Devlin JW, Arora RC, Bleck TP, Claassen J, Duprey MS, Ely EW, Kaplan PW, Latronico N, Morandi A, Neufeld KJ, Sharshar T, MacLullich AMJ, Stevens RD. Updated nomenclature of delirium and acute encephalopathy: statement of ten Societies. Intensive Care Med. 2020; 46: 1020-1022.
[46] Dixon L, Varley J, Gontsarova A, Mallon D, Tona F, Muir D, Luqmani A, Jenkins IH, Nicholas R, Jones B, Everitt A. COVID-19-related acute necrotizing encephalopathy with brain stem involvement in a patient with aplastic anemia. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2020; 7(5):e789.
[47] Collantes MEV, Espiritu AI, Sy MCC, Anlacan VMM, Jamora RDG. Neurological manifestations in COVID-19 infection: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Can J Neurol Sci. 2021; 48: 66-76.
[48] Avula A, Nalleballe K, Narula N, Sapozhnikov S, Dandu V, Toom S, Glaser A, Elsayegh D. Covid-19 presenting as stroke. Brain Behav Immun. 2020; 87: 115-119.
[49] Al Saiegh F, Ghosh R, Leibold A, Avery MB, Schmidt RF, Theofanis T, Mouchtouris N, Philipp L, Peiper SC, Wang ZX, Rincon F, Tjoumakaris SI, Jabbour P, Rosenwasser RH, Gooch MR. Status of SARS-CoV-2 in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with COVID-19 and stroke. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2020; 91: 846-848.
[50] Qiu F, Wu Y, Zhang A, Xie G, Cao H, Du M, Jiang H, Li S, Ding M. Changes of coagulation function and risk of stroke in patients with Covid-19. Brain Behav. 2021; 11(6): e02185.
[51] Orsucci D, Ienco EC, Nocita G, Napolitano A, Vista M. Neurological features of COVID-19 and their treatment: a review. Drugs Context. 2020; 9: 2020-5-1.
[52] Aggarwal G, Lippi G, Michael Henry B. Cerebrovascular disease is associated with an increased disease severity in patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): A pooled analysis of published literature. Int J Stroke. 2020; 15: 385-389.
[53] Rábano-Suárez P, Bermejo-Guerrero L, Méndez-Guerrero A, Parra-Serrano J, Toledo-Alfocea D, Sánchez-Tejerina D, Santos-Fernández T, Folgueira-López MD, Gutiérrez-Gutiérrez J, Ayuso-García B, González de la Aleja J, BenitoLeón J. Generalized myoclonus in COVID-19. Neurology. 2020; 95(6): e767-e772.
[54] Zimmermann KM, Harmel J, Wojtecki L. CORE-myoclonus syndrome: A proposed neurological initial manifestation of Covid-19. Mov Disord Clin Pract. 2021; 8: 637-638.
[55] Vollono C, Rollo E, Romozzi M, Frisullo G, Servidei S, Borghetti A, Calabresi P. Focal status epilepticus as unique clinical feature of COVID-19: A case report. Seizure. 2020; 78: 109-112.
[56] Fasano A, Cavallieri F, Canali E, Valzania F. First motor seizure as presenting symptom of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Neurol Sci. 2020; 41: 1651-1653.
[57] Balloy G, Leclair-Visonneau L, Péréon Y, Magot A, Peyre A, Mahé PJ, Derkinderen P. Non-lesional status epilepticus in a patient with coronavirus disease 2019. Clin Neurophysiol. 2020; 131: 2059-2061.
[58] Somani S, Pati S, Gaston T, Chitlangia A, Agnihotri S. De Novo status epilepticus in patients with COVID-19. Ann Clin Transl Neurol. 2020; 7: 1240-1244.
[59] Mahammedi A, Saba L, Vagal A, Leali M, Rossi A, Gaskill M, Sengupta S, Zhang B, Carriero A, Bachir S, Crivelli P, Paschè A, Premi E, Padovani A, Gasparotti R. Imaging of neurologic disease in hospitalized patients with COVID19: An Italian multicenter retrospective observational study. Radiology. 2020; 297(2): E270-E273.
[60] Cheli M, Dinoto A, Olivo S, Tomaselli M, Stokelj D, Cominotto F, Brigo F, Manganotti P. Sars-Cov-2 pandemic and epilepsy: The impact on emergency department attendances for seizures. Seizure: Eur J Epilepsy. 2020; 82: 23-26.
[61] Wang S-C, Su P-K, Pariante CM. The three frontlines against Covid-19: Brain Behav Immun. 2021; 93: 409-414.
[62] Borges do Nascimento IJ, Cacic N, Abdulazeem HM, von Groote TC, Jayarajah U, Weerasekara I, Esfahani MA, Civile VT, Marusic A, Jeroncic A, Carvas Junior N, Pericic TP, Zakarija-Grkovic I, Meirelles Guimarães SM, Luigi Bragazzi N, Bjorklund M, Sofi-Mahmudi A, Altujjar M, Tian M, Arcani DMC, O'Mathúna DP, Marcolino MS. Novel Coronavirus infection (COVID-19) in humans: A scoping review and meta-analysis. J Clin Med. 2020; 9(4): 941.
[63] Mao L, Jin H, Wang M, Hu Y, Chen S, He Q, Chang J, Hong C, Zhou Y, Wang D, Miao X, Li Y, Hu B. Neurologic manifestations of hospitalized patients with Coronavirus disease 2019 in Wuhan, China. JAMA Neurol. 2020; 77: 683- 690.
[64] Gentile E, Delussi M, Abagnale C, Caponnetto V, De Cesaris F, Frattale I, Guaschino E, Marcinnò A, Ornello R, Pistoia F, Putortì A, Candida G, Roveta F, Lupi C, Coppola G, Prudenzano AMP, Rainero I, Sances G, Roca ME, Trojano M, Pierelli F, Geppetti P, Sacco S, de Tommaso M. Migraine during COVID-19: Data from Second Wave Pandemic in an Italian Cohort. Brain Sci. 2021; 11(4): 482.
[65] Suzuki K, Takeshima T, Igarashi H, Imai N, Danno D, Yamamoto T, Nagata E, Haruyama Y, Mitsufuji T, Suzuki S, Ito Y, Shibata M, Kowa H, Kikui S, Shiina T, Okamura M, Tatsumoto M, Hirata K. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on migraine in Japan: a multicentre cross-sectional study. J Headache Pain. 2021; 22(1): 53.
[66] Kajani R, Apramian A, Vega A, Ubhayakar N, Xu P, Liu A. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome in a COVID-19 patient. Brain Behav Immun. 2020; 88: 28-29.
[67] Munz M, Wessendorf S, Koretsis G, Tewald F, Baegi R, Krämer S, Geissler M, Reinhard M. Acute transverse myelitis after COVID-19 pneumonia. J Neurol. 2020; 267: 2196-2197.
[68] Boziki MK, Mentis AA, Shumilina M, Makshakov G, Evdoshenko E, Grigoriadis N. COVID-19 immunopathology and the central nervous system: Implication for multiple sclerosis and other autoimmune diseases with associated demyelination. Brain Sci. 2020; 10(6): 345.
[69] d'Orsi G, Sica S, Maiorano A, Melchionda D, Lalla A, Montemurro L, Sabetta A, Goffredo R, Lecce B, Fiore JR, Santantonio T, Avolio C. Guillain-Barre syndrome as only manifestation of COVID-19 infection. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2021; 207: 106775.
[70] Finsterer J, Scorza FA, Scorza CA, Fiorini AC. Attributing increased prevalence of facial palsy to SARS-CoV-2 requires evidence. Brain Behav. 2021; 11(2): e01996.
[71] Almeira M, Cejudo JC, Sotoca J, Deus J, Krupinski J. Cognitive profile following Covid-19 infection: Clinical predictors leading to neuropsychological impairment. Brain Behav Immun Health. 2020; 9: 100163.
[72] Hosseini S, Wilk E, Michaelsen-Preusse K, Gerhauser I, Baumgärtner W, Geffers R, Schughart K, Korte M. Long-term neuroinflammation induced by influenza A virus infection and the impact on hippocampal neuron morphology and function. J Neurosci. 2018; 38: 3060-3080.
[73] Sher L. Post-Covid syndrome and suicide risk. QJM. 2021; 114: 95-98.
[74] Carod-Artal FJ. Post-COVID-19 syndrome: epidemiology, diagnostic criteria and pathogenic mechanisms involved. Rev Neurol. 2021; 72: 384-396.
[75] Yong SJ. Long COVID or post-COVID-19 syndrome: putative pathophysiology, risk factors, and treatments. Infect Dis. 2021; May 22: 1-18 (doi: 10.1080/23744235.2021.1924397).
[76] Salamanna F, Veronesi F, Martini L, Landini MP, Fini M. Post-COVID-19 syndrome: The persistent symptoms at the post-viral stage of the disease. A systematic review of the current data. Front Med. 2021; 8: 653516.
[77] Kennedy M, Helfand BKI, Gou RY, Gartaganis SL, Webb M, Moccia JM, Bruursema SN, Dokic B, McCulloch B, Ring H, Margolin JD, Zhang E, Anderson R, Babine RL, Hshieh T, Wong AH, Taylor RA, Davenport K, Teresi B, Fong TG, Inouye SK. Delirium in older patients with COVID-19 presenting to the emergency department. JAMA Netw Open. 2020; 3(11): e2029540.
[78] LaHue SC, James TC, Newman JC, Esmaili AM, Ormseth CH, Ely EW. Collaborative delirium prevention in the age of COVID-19. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2020; 68: 947-949.
[79] Teimouri-Jervekani Z, Salmasi M. Presentation of Covid-19 infection with bizarre behavior and encephalopathy: A case report. J Med Case Reports. 2021; 15: 220.
[80] Rogers JP, Chesney E, Oliver D, Pollak TA, McGuire P, Fusar-Poli P, Zandi MS, Lewis G, David AS. Psychiatric and neuropsychiatric presentations associated with severe coronavirus infections: a systematic review and meta-analysis with comparison to the COVID-19 pandemic. Lancet Psychiatry. 2020; 7: 611-627.
[81] Vanderlind WM, Rabinovitz BB, Miao IY, Oberlin LE, Bueno-Castellano C, Fridman C, Jaywant A, Kanellopoulos D. A systematic review of neuropsychological and psychiatric sequalae of COVID-19: implications for treatment. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2021; 34: 420-433.
[82] Koprdova R, Bögi E, Belovičová K, Sedláčková N, Okuliarová M, Ujházy E, Mach M. Chronic unpredictable mild stress paradigm in male Wistar rats: effect on anxiety- and depressive-like behavior. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2016; 37(Suppl1): 103-110.
[83] Fiksdal A, Hanlin L, Kuras Y, Gianferante D, Chen X, Thoma MV, Rohleder N. Associations between symptoms of depression and anxiety and cortisol responses to and recovery from acute stress. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2019; 102: 44-52.
[84] Murthy P, Narasimha VL. Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown on alcohol use disorders and complications. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2021; 34: 376-385.
[85] Manthey J, Kilian C, Carr S, Bartak M, Bloomfield K, Braddick F, Gual A, Neufeld M, O'Donnell A, Petruzelka B, Rogalewicz V, Rossow I, Schulte B, Rehm J. Use of alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, and other substances during the first wave of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic in Europe: a survey on 36,000 European substance users. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy. 2021; 16(1): 36.
[86] MacMillan T, Corrigan MJ, Coffey K, Tronnier CD, Wang D, Krase K. Exploring factors associated with alcohol and/or substance use during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Int J Ment Health Addict. 2021; Jan 26: 1-10.
[87] Valdés-Florido MJ, López-Díaz Á, Palermo-Zeballos FJ, Garrido-Torres N, Álvarez-Gil P, Martínez-Molina I, MartínGil VE, Ruiz-Ruiz E, Mota-Molina M, Algarín-Moriana MP, Guzmán-Del Castillo AH, Ruiz-Arcos Á, GómezCoronado R, Galiano-Rus S, Rosa-Ruiz A, Prados-Ojeda JL, Gutierrez-Rojas L, Crespo-Facorro B, Ruiz-Veguilla M. Clinical characterization of brief psychotic disorders triggered by the COVID-19 pandemic: a multicenter observational study. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2021; 3: 1-11.
[88] Chacko M, Job A, Caston F 3rd, George P, Yacoub A, Cáceda R. COVID-19-Induced Psychosis and Suicidal Behavior: Case Report. SN Compr Clin Med. 2020; 26: 1-5.
[89] Gillett G, Jordan I. Severe psychiatric disturbance and attempted suicide in a patient with COVID-19 and no psychiatric history. BMJ Case Rep. 2020; 13(10): e239191.
[90] Habu H, Takao S, Fujimoto R, Naito H, Nakao A, Yorifuji T. Emergency dispatches for suicide attempts during the COVID-19 outbreak in Okayama, Japan: A descriptive epidemiological study. J Epidemiol. 2021 Jun 26 (doi: 10.2188/jea.JE20210066).
[91] Panda PK, Gupta J, Chowdhury SR, Kumar R, Meena AK, Madaan P, Sharawat IK, Gulati S. Psychological and behavioral impact of lockdown and quarantine measures for COVID-19 pandemic on children, adolescents and caregivers: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Trop Pediatr. 2021; 67(1): fmaa122.
[92] Shah R, Raju VV, Sharma A, Grover S. Impact of COVID-19 and lockdown on children with ADHD and their familiesan online survey and a continuity care model. J Neurosci Rural Pract. 2021; 12: 71-79.
[93] Ueda R, Okada T, Kita Y, Ozawa Y, Inoue H, Shioda M, Kono Y, Kono C, Nakamura Y, Amemiya K, Ito A, Sugiura N, Matsuoka Y, Kaiga C, Kubota M, Ozawa H. The quality of life of children with neurodevelopmental disorders and their parents during the Coronavirus disease 19 emergency in Japan. Sci Rep. 2021; 11(1): 3042.
[94] Bruni O, Giallonardo M, Sacco R, Ferri R, Melegari MG. The impact of lockdown on sleep patterns of children and adolescents with ADHD. J Clin Sleep Med. 2021 Apr 1 (doi: 10.5664/jcsm.9296).
[95] Shorey S, Lau LST, Tan JX, Ng ED, Ramkumar A. Families with children with neurodevelopmental disorders during COVID-19: A scoping review. 2021; 46(5): 514-525.
[96] Fox KR, Stathi A, McKenna J, Davis MG. Physical activity and mental well-being in older people participating in the Better Ageing Project. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2007; 100: 591-602.
[97] Cunningham C, O' Sullivan R, Caserotti P, Tully MA. Consequences of physical inactivity in older adults: A systematic review of reviews and meta-analyses. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2020; 30: 816-827.
[98] Cohen G, Russo MJ, Campos JA, Allegri RF. COVID-19 epidemic in Argentina: Worsening of behavioral symptoms in elderly subjects with dementia living in the community. Front Psychiatry. 2020; 11: 866.
[99] Shea YF, Shum CK, Wan WH, Chan MMK. Worsening behavioural and psychological symptoms of dementia during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic. Psychogeriatrics. 2020; 20: 916-917.
[100] Xia X, Wang Y, Zheng J. COVID-19 and Alzheimer's disease: how one crisis worsens the other. Transl Neurodegener. 2021; 10(1): 15.
[101] Cohen G, Russo MJ, Campos JA, Allegri RF. Living with dementia: increased level of caregiver stress in times of COVID-19. Int Psychogeriatr. 2020; 32: 1377-1381.
[102] Borelli WV, Augustin MC, de Oliveira PBF, Reggiani LC, Bandeira-de-Mello RG, Schumacher-Schuh AF, Chaves MLF, Castilhos RM. Neuropsychiatric symptoms in patients with dementia associated with increased psychological distress in caregivers during the COVID-19 pandemic. J Alzheimers Dis. 2021; 80: 1705-1712.
[103] Gillespie SM, Wasserman EB, Wood N, Wang H, Dozier A, Nelson D, McConnochie KM, Shah MN. High-intensity telemedicine reduces emergency department use by older adults with dementia in senior living communities. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2019; 20: 942-946.
[104] Geddes MR, O'Connell ME, Fisk JD, Gauthier S, Camicioli R, Ismail Z; Alzheimer Society of Canada Task Force on Dementia Care Best Practices for COVID‐19. Remote cognitive and behavioral assessment: Report of the Alzheimer Society of Canada Task Force on dementia care best practices for COVID-19. Alzheimers Dement. 2020; 12(1): e12111.
[105] Lombart M, Pastoret PP, Moulin AM. A brief history of vaccines and vaccination. Rev Sci Tech. 2007; 26: 29-48.
[106] Cheng H, Peng Z, Luo W, Si S, Mo M, Zhou H, Xin X, Liu H, Yu Y. Efficacy and safety of COVID-19 vaccines in phase III trials: A meta-analysis. Vaccines. 2021; 9(6): 582.
[107] Xu S, Yang K, Li R, Zhang L. mRNA vaccine era-mechanisms, drug platform and clinical prospection. Int J Mol Sci. 2020; 21(18): 6582.
[108] Pascolo S. Synthetic messenger RNA-based vaccines: from scorn to hype. Viruses. 2021; 13(2): 270.
[109] Anand P, Stahel VP. The safety of Covid-19 mRNA vaccines: a review. Patient Saf Surg. 2021; 15: 22.
[110] Finsterer J, Scorza FA. SARS-CoV-2 vaccines are not free of neurological side effects. Acta Neurol Scand. 2021; 144: 109-110.
[111] Aladdin Y, Shirah B. New-onset refractory status epilepticus following the ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccine. J Neuroimmunol. 2021; 357: 577629.
[112] Keir G, Maria NI, Kirsch CFE. Unique Imaging Findings of Neurologic Phantosmia Following Pfizer-BioNtech COVID-19 Vaccination: A Case Report. Top Magn Reson Imaging. 2021; 30: 133-137.
[113] Lu L, Xiong W, Mu J, Zhang Q, Zhang H, Zou L, Li W, He L, Sander JW, Zhou D. Neurological side effects of COVID19 vaccines are rare. Acta Neurol Scand. 2021; 144: 111-112.
[114] Khan S, Siddique R, Xiaoyan W, Zhang R, Nabi G, Sohail Afzal M, Liu J, Xue M. Mental health consequences of infections by coronaviruses including severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Brain Behav. 2021; 11(2): e01901.
[115] Yolken RH, Torrey EF. Are some cases of psychosis caused by microbial agents? A review of the evidence. Mol Psychiatry. 2008; 13: 470-479.
[116] van den Pol AN. Viral infection leading brain dysfunction: more prevalent than appreciated? Neuron. 2009; 64: 17- 20.
[117] Sutterland AL, Fond G, Kuin A, Koeter MW, Lutter R, van Gool T, Yolken R, Szoke A, Leboyer M, de Haan L. Beyond the association. Toxoplasma gondii in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and addiction: systematic review and metaanalysis. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2015; 132: 161-179.