Bu makale, Türkiye'de Cumhuriyetin ilk yıllarından günümüze süre gelen modernleşme politikalarının temel özellikleri ve gerçekleş(tiril)me biçimleri ile bunun sonucu olarak gelişen süreklilik, kırılma ve çatallanmaları konu edinmektedir. Çalışmada Türkiye modernleşmesinin yol açtığı sosyo-kültürel kırılmalar ile söz konusu modernleşme modelinin hangi teorik ve kavramsal kategoriye girdiği tarihsel dönemselleştirmeler ve sosyolojik bir perspektifle ele alınmaktadır. Türkiye modernleşmesi, tarihsel ve toplumsal koşulları gereği merkezinde geç kalmışlığın belirgin olduğu bir karakter sergiler. Bu nedenle literatürde bu durum, "Batı dışı", "Geç modernlik" bağlamında değerlendirilmektedir. Cumhuriyetle başlayan ve tek parti dönemi boyunca süregelen katı laik, ulusçu, seküler ve devlet merkezli modernleşme politikaları 1950, 1980 sonrası ve 2000'li yıllarda gerçekleşen reform ve açılımlarla esneme ve çatallanmalar geçirerek çoğullaşmıştır. Bu bağlamda modernleşmenin istikameti "tepeden inmeci modernleştirme" özüne sahip "devlet merkezli modernleşme modelleri"nden görece doğal, çevrenin de dahil olduğu "kendi kendini oluşturan toplumsal bir süreç halindeki modernleşme"ye doğru yol almaktadır. Başka bir deyişle devlet merkezli, yukarıdan aşağı, tek tipçi modernleşme modeli zayıflamakta, nispeten doğal, çevrenin katılım sağladığı, çoğulcu modernliğe doğru güçlü bir yöneliş dikkat çekmektedir. Tüm bunlarla birlikte Türkiye açısından Batı dışı özgün bir modernite modelinin kurumsallaştığını söylemek güçtür. Türkiye modernleşmesinin bu durumu ülkeye özgü tarihsel ve sosyolojik koşullarla yakından ilişkilidir. Kimi zaman askeri müdahalelerle, kimi zaman ekonomik krizlerle, otoriterleşme ve demokratikleşme arasında salınan, sosyal ve kültürel zeminde kutuplaşma ve kamplaşmaya varan bölünmelerle, Doğu ve Batı arasında bocalayan bütün müktesebatıyla Türkiye modernleşmesi, kendini konsolide edemediğinden modernleşme süreci kesintili, bölünmüş ve çatallanmış bir tarzda sür(müş)mektedir. Dolayısıyla Batı dışı modernleşme örneği olarak Türkiye'deki *Bu makale Crosscheck sistemi tarafından taranmış ve bu sistem sonuçlarına göre orijinal bir makale olduğu tespit edilmiştir. ** Yrd. Doç. Dr. Harran Üniversitesi Fen Edebiyat Fakültesi Sosyoloji Bölümü, El-mek: mahmutkaya@harran.edu.tr 546 Mahmut KAYA Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 10/2 Winter 2015 modernleşme süreci, başlangıç koşullarına göre her ne kadar belirli bir olgunluğa ulaşmış olsa da geç modernliğin bir sonucu olarak geçirmiş olduğu tarihsel ve toplumsal sorunları tam anlamıyla çözemediğinden kurumsallaşma, sosyal entegrasyon ve siyasal katılım/temsil boyutlarıyla halen modernleşme sancıları yaşamaktadır. Bu sorunların aşılması demokratikleşme, siyasal ve toplumsal katılımın artması, hak ve özgürlüklerin genişletilmesi, erkler arası özerkliğin tahkimi, ve en önemlisi sivil ve özgürlükçü yeni bir anayasayı gerekli kılmaktadır.

This article addresses the basic characteristics of modernization policies that have existed from the early years of the Republic period till now in Turkey and their realization forms as well as the resulting continuities, ruptures and bifurcations. The socio-cultural ruptures caused by modernization of Turkey and the theoretical and conceptual category in which this modernization model is involved are examined by historical periodization and sociological perspective in this study. Modernism originated historically in Western Europe means concept of universe consisting of various principles for individual, society and nature. Modernization is defined as the approach of modernism constructed as the global way of improvement and development for non-western societies. While modernization was developed as a consequence of the change in social, economic and political systems in the Western Europe and Northern America from the seventieth century till the nineteenth century, it continued spreading across the continents of South America, Asia and Africa till the twenty first century. Such expansionist impacts of modernization had been seen in the Ottoman society since the nineteenth century. The efforts to “reach the level of modern civilizations” which emerged in the period of Selim III were developed in the periods of Mahmut II and Committee of Union and Progress and continued fast during the period of Republic and they still can be seen today. While analysing the modernization history of Turkey, two basic concepts are used as reference source. The first one is “rupture” and the other one is continuity. According to rupture-based approaches, the modern history of Turkey is constituted by the modernization process depending on the nation-state understanding that existed since 1923. For continuity-based approaches, the modernization history consists of state-centric and authoritarian and militarist process from top to down. The origins of this history can be seen in Late Ottoman Empire. Modernization of Turkey during the Republic period represents a change with intertwining socio-cultural ruptures and polarization. Such modernization comes from superiors and is built on state and bureaucracy rather than being natural ab initio. Since modernization processes haven’t been in a natural course during their historical Batı Dışı Modernleşme Örneği Olarak Türkiye Modernleşmesi: Süreklilikler,… 547 Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 10/2 Winter 2015 development, such classifications as “Late modernism”, “Late Modernity” and “Non-Western Modernism” are used for their structure. The idea of non-western modernism and multi- modernism was developed when modernization having emerged in Western Europe spread to other societies over time and was transformed and produced eclectic and hybrid modernism by its own dynamics. Turkey is an important example of this hybrid and eclectic modernization form. Modernizing elites of Turkey had the basic aim to secularize and modernize society. Moreover, the suppression instruments of state and also the authoritarian policies were used in order to achieve this vision. Thus, the republican administration abolished royalty and caliphate and defined itself on the secular-nationalist basis. The ruptures from the past socio-cultural structure were taken as basis for all of the policies for transforming the society. Many reforms such as the structure of state, regime, citizenship, civil law and alphabet aimed for westernization. All of them were realized by an epistemological rupture from the Ottoman history. Such a modernization was developed in the context called as “authoritarian modernization” in which transformation was imposed from top to down by state through bureaucracy. It was a significant characteristic of this modernization. The initial, strict, ideological and top-down transformation of the republican modernization and the relaxation increased respectively in the second half of the twenty first century and also the ruptures from state-centric and monist modernization model were seen. The year of 1950 is the beginning of the second period of the Turkish Republic which was of vital importance in the political and social life in the context of transition to multi-party system. While the Democratic Party (DP) gained the support of people and allowed for transition of political leadership from bureaucrat- political elites to economic elites in that period, it also justified Islam and traditional rural values. When the Democratic Party won the elections, the strict secular understanding of single-party period was left aside. However, with the coup of May 27th, government de jure was overthrown. The coup of May 27th which is the first military coup of the republican history is a milestone for developing a new understanding in Turkey. The fact that the military overthrew the government for the sake of Kemalism allowed for establishing a political tutelage that would exist for a long time under the custody of military through the institutions and philosophy of Turkish Constitution of 1961. The third turning point in the modernization of Turkey is 1980s. Anavatan Party (ANAP) which was the ruling party in that period adopted liberalism economically and featured individualism and also introduced the understanding of “serving state” instead of “sacred state”. It is possible to point out that a technological modernization was experienced in that period. Also “top-down” modernization model which was dominant till 1950s was replaced after 1983 when the social sphere gained autonomy and sovereignty. The social powers gained political, economic and cultural autonomy and exerted their authority on guiding and auditing the transformation, which made the years 1980s a milestone in the modernization process of Turkey. That is considered as a transition process from modernization to modernism in terms of republican modernization. Thus, people and non-governmental organizations got involved, by means of social and political 548 Mahmut KAYA Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 10/2 Winter 2015 participation, in the modernization policies which existed under the monopoly of state power for long years and hence the modernization centred on the military and bureaucratic elites entered into a process of producing an authentic modernism when people took initiative. However, the single-party powers which symbolized the stability in the country were replaced by coalitions in the mid-1990s. With “postmodern coup” experienced in February 28th, 1997, democracy was again put under custody in Turkey. The division of society into camps interrupted social integrity in that period when modernization regressed and the government became authoritarian in the hand of various powers and also economic and social turmoil existed. The years 2000s represent the fourth stage in the modernization of Turkey. In that period, the modernization process underwent radical transformations under the effects of developments across the world and modernism was bifurcated. The victory of AK Party (Justice and Development Party) in the general elections of the year 2002 is the beginning of a new period in terms of course of modernization. The success of AK Party which constructs a “conservative democrat” ideological identity and depends on the conservative democrat movement, the origins of which became evident during the period of Menderes and Özal, stems from integrating the Islamic movements with the conservative democrat movement and gaining the statute of “negotiating country” by the reforms with a policy to consider accession to EU important. Its success also results from mobilization of various large segments of society, decrease of political power of the military and development of an understanding which stands at an equal distance from all different belief systems including non-moslem minorities and which becomes an guarantee of religious freedoms, which can be regarded as post-Kemalist secularism, and consequently the Party’s policies to deepen democracy. This new period, an important stage in the Turkish politics, democracy and modernity, is conceived as “New Turkey”. While the practices having entered into force by the referendum of September 12th, 2010 and election of president by people on August 10th, 2014 are considered as the beginning of periodization, it is also stressed that bureaucratic custody in the official and civil field was regressed. In that period, most of the anti-democratic practices which have been accumulated for years were removed and also significant developments were achieved in the social, economic and political field as well as in education, urbanization, transportation, health, the disabled, women, civil society etc. compared to previous periods. However, the economic, cultural and politically-chronic problems of various ethnic, religious and social groups especially the Kurdish Question in Turkey still occupy the agenda of country. Considering the modernization of Turkey from the early republic period till now, it is seen that the mentioned problems still haven’t been settled completely and rather, some of them have gradually become inextricable. Integration of social groups (religious, political, ethnic etc.) with nation-state and search of a political system that can hold this pluralism together still remain in the first place on the agenda of society and government since the late Ottoman period till now and they form the main axis of recent conflicts and polarization. In this context, the continuities and ruptures that constitute the core of modernization policies have emerged on the axis of such concepts as republic, Batı Dışı Modernleşme Örneği Olarak Türkiye Modernleşmesi: Süreklilikler,… 549 Turkish Studies International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 10/2 Winter 2015 democracy, piety, secularity, modernism, traditionalism, nationalism, nation formation during that period. Modernization of Turkey represents somehow the quest of solutions for these problems. Lateness due to historical and social conditions is evident in the modernization of Turkey. The strict, secular, nationalist and statecentred modernization policies that emerged in the republic period and existed during the single-party period underwent relaxation and bifurcation and hence multiplied by the reforms and initiatives which were realized in 1950, post-1980 and 2000s. In this context, the direction of modernization passes from “state-centric modernization models” with “authoritarian core” to a respectively-natural modernization with a “self-creating social process” involving the others as well. Nevertheless, it is difficult to say that a non-western and authentic modernity model has been institutionalised for Turkey, which is closely associated with the country-specific historical and sociological conditions. Modernization of Turkey was shaken by the military coups, economic crises, authoritarian attitude and democratization and underwent splits, polarization and camping socially and culturally and also wavered between East and West with its whole acquis. That is why the Turkish modernization hasn’t been able to consolidate itself and hence the modernization process has continued/continues in a noncontinuous, disunited and bifurcated way. Thus, although the modernization process of Turkey as a non-western modernization model has reached a certain level of maturity compared to its initial conditions, it hasn’t completely been able to solve historical and social problems caused by late modernism and hence it still has the pains of modernization in terms of the aspects of institutionalization, social integration and political participation/ representation. Democratisation, growth of political and social participation, expansion of rights and freedoms, strengthening of autonomy between the powers and the most importantly, development of a new constitution which will form the basis for achieving all of them are regarded as an imperative necessity and hence they maintain their importance in order to overcome the existing problems.