Collaboration and Virtual Learning in New Zealand Rural Primary Schools: A Review of the Literature

In this literature review, the authors examined three key areas that were chosen as relevant to the challenges faced by small rural schools, and collaborative practice between schools working in virtual learning environments in New Zealand. The first area was rural education, where definitions of rurality and the demographics and characteristics of small rural New Zealand schools were described, and the challenges and innovations in rural school setting were explored. The second area was collaborative practice, where features of effective collaboration were discussed as is the professional practice and theory that underpins collaboration across school networks. Finally, the third area was virtual learning, which was defined and described, along with the benefits and challenges of learning in virtual environments, and the growth of networked learning communities in New Zealand was chronicled. A comprehensive scope of the current New Zealand education landscape was included to provide the context in which this review resides.

___

  • 21st Century Learning Reference Group. (2014). Future-focused learning in connected communities. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Education. Retrieved from http://www.education.govt.nz/ assets/Documents/Ministry/Initiatives/FutureFocusedLearning30May2014.pdf Ainscow, M. (2016). Collaboration as a strategy for promoting equity in education: possibilities and barriers. Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 1(2), 159-172. https://doi.org/10.1108/JPCC-12- 2015-0013 Ali, A. (2017). The development of the learning exchange schools in New Zealand: An actor network theory and complexity theory analysis. An unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Victoria University, Wellington, New Zealand. Retrieved from http://researcharchive.vuw.ac.nz/handle/10063/6457 Anderson, T., & Dron, J. (2011). Three generations of distance education pedagogy. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 12(3), 80-97. https://doi.org/10.19173/ irrodl.v12i3.890 Annan, J., & Carpenter, R. (2014). Learning and change networks: Connecting students with learning. Wellington, New Zealand: Aotearoa New Zealand Education Gazette. Retrieved from https:// gazette.education.govt.nz/articles/1H9csP-learning-and-change-networks-connecting-studentswith-learning/ Baills, L., & Rossi, T. (2001). The transition from isolated, rural contexts to boarding school - Can school physical education and sport play a part? Journal of Physical Education New Zealand, 34(1), 40-52. Barbour, M. K. (2011a). Primary and secondary e-learning: Examining the process of achieving maturity. Christchurch, New Zealand: Distance Education Association of New Zealand. Retrieved from http://www.vln.school.nz/mod/file/download.php?file_guid=114023 Barbour, M. K. (2011b). Addressing learner needs: An example from the VLN Primary. Retrieved from http:// www.vln.school.nz/groupcms/view/8282/learner-needs Barbour, M. K. (2014). A history of international K-12 online and blended instruction. In R. Ferdig & K. Kennedy (Eds)., Handbook of Research on K-12 Online and Blended Learning (pp. 25-50). Pittsburgh, PA: Entertainment Technology Center Press, Carnegie Mellon University. Retrieved from http://press.etc.cmu.edu/content/handbook-research-k-12-online-and-blended-learning-0 Barbour, M. K. (2015). US and international K-12 online learning: How have they developed differently? In D. Rutledge & D. Slykhuis (Eds.), Proceeding of the 2015 Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference (pp. 1446–1453). Chesapeake, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education. Retrieved from https://www.learntechlib. org/p/150584/ Barbour, M. K., Davis, N., & Wenmoth, D. (2013). Networked Schools in New Zealand: Examples from the Virtual Learning Network. In R. McBride & M. Searson (Eds.), Proceeding of the 2013 Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference (pp. 4102–4107). Chesapeake, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education.. Retrieved from http://www.learntechlib.org/p/48763/ Barbour, M. K., Miron, G., & Huerta, L. (2017). Virtual schools in the U.S.: Case studies of policy, performance, and research evidence. Lansing, MI: Michigan Virtual Learning Research Institute. Retrieved from http://media.mivu.org/institute/pdf/VSCase-17.pdf Barbour, M., & Wenmoth, D. (2013). Virtual learning as an impetus for educational change: Charting a way forward for learning in New Zealand. Christchurch, New Zealand: Core Education. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.sacredheart.edu/ced_fac/93 Barley, Z. A., & Beesley, A. D. (2007). Rural school success: What can we learn? Journal of Research in Rural Education, 22(1), 1-16. Retrieved from http://jrre.psu.edu/articles/22-3.pdf Bartholomaeus, P. (2013). Educating for sustainable rural futures. Australian and International Journal of Rural Education, 23(2), 101-113. 119 Bates, T. (2005). Technology, e-learning and distance education (2nd ed). New York: Routledge. Bolstad, R. (2011). Principles for a future-oriented education system. New Zealand Annual Review of Education, 2011–2012(21), 77–95. Bolstad, R., Gilbert, J., McDowall, S., Bull, A., Boyd, S., & Hipkins, R. (2012). Supporting future-oriented learning & teaching a New Zealand perspective. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Education. Retrieved from http://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/109317/994_ Future-oriented-07062012.pdf Bolstad, R., & Lin, M. (2009). Students’ experiences of learning in virtual classrooms. Wellington, New Zealand: New Zealand Council for Educational Research. Retrieved from http://www.nzcer.org.nz/system/ files/students-experiences-learning-virtual-classrooms.pdf Borup, J., West, R. E., Graham, C. R., & Davies, R. S. (2014). The adolescent community of engagement framework: A lens for research on K-12 online learning. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 22(1), 107-129. Cavanaugh, C., Ferdig, R. E., & Freidhoff, J. R. (2015). Research into K-12 online & blended learning. In T. Clark & M. Barbour (Eds.), Online, Blended and Distance Education in Schools: Building Successful Programs (pp. 52-59). Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing, LLC. Chapman, C., Chestnutt, H., Friel, N., Hall, S., & Lowden. K., (2016). Professional capital and collaborative inquiry networks for educational equity and improvement? Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 1(3), 178-197. https://doi.org/10.1108/JPCC-03-2016-0007 Cloke, P. J. (2006). Conceptualizing rurality. In P. Cloke, T. Marsden & P. Mooney (Eds.), Handbook of Rural Studies (pp. 18–29). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Corbett, M. (2007). Travels in space and place: Identity and rural schooling. Canadian Journal of Education, 30(3), 771-792. Cowie, B., & Hipkins, R. (2009). Curriculum implementation exploratory studies: Final report. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Education. Retrieved from http://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/__ data/assets/pdf_file/0008/57824/930_CIESweb.pdf Crothers, C., Smith, P., Urale, P., & Bell, A. (2016). The internet in New Zealand 2015. Auckland, New Zealand: Institute of Culture, Discourse & Communication, Auckland University of Technology. Retrieved from https://icdc.aut.ac.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/73442/WIPNZ-Report-060515.pdf Daly, A. J. (Ed.). (2010). Social network theory and educational change. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press. Donehower, K., Hogg, C. & Schell, E. (2007). Rural literacies. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press. Donohoo, J. (2017). Collective efficacy: How educators’ beliefs impact student learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. Duffy, G., & Gallagher, T. (2017). Shared education in contested spaces: How collaborative networks improve communities and schools. Journal of Educational Change, 18(1), 107-134. https://doi. org/10.1007/s10833-016-9279-3 Duke, B., Harper, G., & Johnston, M. (2013). Connectivism as a digital age learning theory. In L. Stefani, S. Tegginmath, & B. Todhunter (Eds.), The International HETL Review (pp. 4-13). Kew Gardens, NY: The International Higher Education Teaching and Learning Association Retrieved from https://www.hetl.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/HETLReview2013SpecialIssueArticle1.pdf Earl Rinehart, K. (2017). Judging what they do: Formal, informal, and self appraisal of New Zealand (rural) primary school principals. An unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand. Retrieved from https://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/handle/10289/11543 Education Review. (2016, April). A Matter of Principal. Education Review: Leadership & Professional Development 2016. Retrieved from http://educationreview.co.nz/a-matter-of-principal/ 120 East, L. (2016). Why COOLs are so uncool... What the Education (Update) Amendment Bill means for you? New Zealand Principal Nga Tumuaki O Aotearoa, 31(4), 31-32. Feys, E., & Devos, G. (2015). What comes out of incentivized collaboration: A qualitative analysis of eight Flemish school networks. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 43(5), 738-754. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143214535738 Fullan, M. (2005). Professional learning communities writ large. In R. DuFour, R. E. Eaker, & R. B. DuFour (Eds.), On common ground: the power of professional learning communities (pp. 209-224). Bloomington, IN: National Educational Service. Fullan, M. (2015, June 9). Learning is the work. Motion Leadership. Retrieved from https://michaelfullan. ca/topic-video-learning-is-the-work/ Garrison, D., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2010). The first decade of the community of inquiry framework: A retrospective. The Internet and Higher Education, 13, 5-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. iheduc.2009.10.003 Gibson, J. (2009). Virtual Learning Network (VLN) Primary/Intermediate cluster development plan - Milestone 1. Masterton, New Zealand: Authentic Encounters Online. Government of New Zealand. (2018). Korero Matauranga let’s talk about Education. Wellington, New Zealand: Author. Retrieved from https://conversation.education.govt.nz/ Green, B. (2015). Australian education and rural-regional sustainability. Australian and International Journal of Rural Education, 25(3), 36-49. Guri-Rosenblit, S. (2005). ‘Distance education’ and ‘e-learning’: Not the same thing. Higher Education, 49(4), 467-493. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-004-0040-0 Halfacree, K. (2006). Rural space: constructing a three-fold architecture. In P. Cloke, T. Marsden & P. Mooney (Eds.), Handbook of Rural Studies (pp. 44-63). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Harasim, L. (2014). Learning theory and online technologies. London: Taylor and Francis. Hargreaves, A., & O’Connor. M.T. (2017). Cultures of professional collaboration: their origins and opponents. Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 2(2), 74-85. https://doi.org/10.1108/ JPCC-02-2017-0004 Hayward, J. (2008). Sabbatical report from Jeff Hayward, Principal, Waimata Valley School, Gisborne. Gisborne, New Zealand: Waimata Valley School. Retrieved from http://www.educationalleaders.govt.nz/ Leadership-development/Principals-sabbatical-reports/Report-archives-for-2007-2015/Primaryaward-recipients-2008 Investing in Educational Success Working Group. (2014). Investing in educational success: Working group report. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Education. Retrieved from http://www.education. govt.nz/assets/Documents/Ministry/Investing-in-Educational-Success/Investing-in-EducationalSuccess-Working-Group-Report-3-June-2014.pdf Johnson, K. (2016). Investigating how to better prepare our students for the transition to boarding school. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Education. Retrieved from http://www.educationalleaders. govt.nz/Leadership-development/Principals-sabbatical-reports/Primary-award-recipients-2016 Kaye, N. (2012). Inquiry into 21st century learning environments and digital literacy. Wellington, New Zealand: Education and Science Committee, Parliament. Retrieved from https://www.parliament. nz/resource/en-NZ/50DBSCH_SCR5695_1/b6ed634f8930f5797df8b91ca9f4a519e0e6608d Kaye, N. (2017). Biggest education reform in decades passes final reading. Wellington, New Zealand: Government of New Zealand. Retrieved from https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/biggest-education-reformdecades-passes-final-reading Kearns, R. A., Lewis, N., McCreanor, T., & Witten, K. (2009). ‘The status quo is not an option’: Community impacts of school closure in South Taranaki, New Zealand. Journal of Rural Studies, 25(1), 131- 140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2008.08.002 121 Kop, R., & Hill, A. (2008). Connectivism: Learning theory of the future or vestige of the past? The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 9(3). Retrieved from http:// www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/523 Lai, K.W., Pratt, K., & Grant, A. (2003). State of the art and trends in distance, flexible, and open learning: A review of the literature. Dunedin, New Zealand: University of Otago. Retrieved from http://www. otago.ac.nz/courses/distance_study/pdf/distance_lit_review.pdf Langley, M. (2003). Case study of the Cantatech and TOSItech distance learning projects. An unpublished Master’s Thesis, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand. Retrieved from https:// ir.canterbury.ac.nz/handle/10092/2869 Langley, J. (Ed.). (2009). Tomorrow’s schools 20 years on. Auckland, New Zealand: Cognition Institute. Retrieved from http://www.cognitioneducationtrust.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/report_ cognition_institute_john_langley_ed.pdf McLean, F. M., Dixon, R. M., & Verenikina, I. (2014). Bringing it to the teachers: Building a professional network among teachers in isolated schools. Australian and International Journal of Rural Education, 24(2), 15-22. Mcleod, H. (2015, May). Families respond to Stewart Island school’s plea. The Southland Times. Retrieved from https://www.stuff.co.nz/southland-times/news/68590864/Families-respond-to-StewartIsland-schools-plea Ministry of Education. (1998). Interactive education: An information and communication technologies strategy for schools. Wellington, New Zealand: Author. Ministry of Education. (2002). Digital horizons: Learning through ICT. Wellington, New Zealand: Author. Ministry of Education. (2006). Enabling the 21st century learner: An e-learning action plan for schools, 2006- 2010. Wellington, New Zealand: Author. Ministry of Education. (2011a). Learning communities online: A support handbook for cluster schools. Wellington, NewZealand: Author. Retrieved from http://www.vln.school.nz/groups/profile/2644/ lco-handbook Ministry of Education. (2011b). Creating educationally powerful connections. The New Zealand Curriculum Update (14). Retrieved from http://nzcurriculum.tki.org.nz/content/download/9502/127180/ file/NZC-update-14.pdf Ministry of Education. (2013). School ICT infrastructure survey. Wellington, New Zealand: Author. Retrieved from http://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/publications/schooling/school-ict-infrastructuresurvey Ministry of Education. (2016). Funding for isolation across schooling and early learning. Wellington, New Zealand: Author. Retrieved from https://education.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/Funding-for-Isolationacross-Schooling-and-ECE.docx Ministry of Education. (2017a). New Zealand schools. Wellington, New Zealand: Author. Retrieved from http://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/data-services/directories/list-of-nz-schools Ministry of Education. (2017b). Your guide to the new Education Update Act 2017. Wellington, New Zealand: Author. Retrieved from https://education.govt.nz/assets/Documents/Ministry/Legislation/EdAct-Update-Factsheets/Update-to-the-Ed-Act-Diagram-AW.pdf Ministry of Education. (2018). Our schooling futures: Stronger together Whiria Nga Kura Tūatinitini. Report by the Tomorrow’s Schools Independent Taskforce. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Education. Retrieved from https://conversation.education.govt.nz/assets/TSR/Tomorrows-Schools-ReviewReport-13Dec2018.PDF Moore, M. G., & Kearsley, G. (2012). Distance education: a systems view of online learning (3rd ed). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. 122 New Zealand Education Institute, & Ministry of Education. (2015). Joint initiative governance group report. Wellington, New Zealand: Ministry of Education. Retrieved from https://www.nzei.org.nz// documents/JI/Joint-Initiative-Working-Party-Report.pdf O’Leary, H. A. A. (2015). Leading learning for Maori students: The challenges of leadership for teaching principals in small rural primary schools. Auckland, New Zealand: Unitec Institute of Technology. Retrieved from http://unitec.researchbank.ac.nz/handle/10652/3260 Owen, H. (2011). Personalised, contextualised professional learning development: Putting it into practice. Journal of Open Flexible and Distance Learning, 15(1), 61-74. Owen, H. (2013). Interview with Eddie Reisch. Journal of Open Flexible and Distance Learning, 17(1), 46- 55. Palloff, R. M., & Pratt, K. (2008). Building online learning communities effective strategies for the virtual classroom. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Retrieved from http://nbn-resolving.de/ urn:nbn:de:101:1-201412148745 Palys, T. (2008). Purposive sampling. In L.M. Given (Ed.) The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods (Vol. 2, pp. 697-698). Los Angeles, CA: SAGE. Parata, H. (2016). Review of educational funding: update and next steps (Cabinet paper). Wellington, New Zealand: New Zealand Parliament | Paremata Aotearoa. Retrieved from http://www.education. govt.nz/assets/Uploads/R-SOC-16-SUB-0143-Paper-Review-of-Education-Funding-Systems.pdf Parkes, M., Gregory, S., Fletcher, P., Adlington, R., & Gromik, N. (2015). Bringing people together while learning apart: Creating online learning environments to support the needs of rural and remote students. Australian and International Journal of Rural Education, 25(1), 65-77. Patterson, R. (2014). No school is an island: Fostering collaboration in a competitive system. Wellington, New Zealand: The New Zealand Initiative. Retrieved from https://nzinitiative.org.nz/reports-andmedia/reports/no-school-is-an-island/ Powell, A., & Barbour. M. K., (2011). Tracing international differences in online learning development: An examination of government policies in New Zealand. Journal of Open, Flexible and Distance Learning, 15(1), 75-89. Preston, J. P., Jakubiec, B. A. E., & Kooymans, R. (2013). Common challenges faced by rural principals: A review of the literature. The Rural Educator, 35(1). Retrieved from http://epubs.library.msstate. edu/index.php/ruraleducator/article/view/119 Rincón-Gallardo, S., & Fullan. M., (2016). Essential features of effective networks in education. Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 1(1), 5-22. https://doi.org/10.1108/JPCC-09-2015-0007 Roberts, R. (2009). Video conferencing in distance learning: A New Zealand schools’ perspective. Journal of Distance Learning, 13(1), 91-107. Roberts, R. (2010). Increasing access for learners – The Virtual Learning Network. In V. Ham & D. Wenmoth (Eds.), e-Learnings: Implementing a national strategy for ICT in education, 1998-2010 (pp. 144-152). Christchurch, New Zealand: CORE Education Ltd. Roberts, R. (2014, November). Look out they are coming! DEANZ Magazine. Retrieved from http://flanz. org.nz/flanzorg/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Nov14.pdf Ronfeldt, M., Farmer, S. O., McQueen, K., & Grissom, J. A. (2015). Teacher collaboration in instructional teams and student achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 52(3), 475-514. https:// doi.org/10.3102/0002831215585562 Siemens, G. (2005). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. International Journal of Instructional Technology & Distance Learning, 2(1), 3-10. Staker, H., & Horn, M., B. (2012). Classifying K–12 blended learning. Redwood City, CA: Innosight Institute. Retrieved from https://www.blendedlearning.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Classifying-K12-blended-learning.pdf