Petrography and geochemistry of the Kamlial Formation, southwestern Kohat plateau, Pakistan: implications for paleoclimate of the Western Himalayas

The Middle to Late Miocene Kamlial Formation that largely consists of sandstone and interbedded clay/mudstone sequences is exposed in the southwestern part of the Kohat plateau, which constitutes the westernmost extension of the Himalayan Foreland Basin. Whereas the sandstone is gray to brownish gray, fine- to medium-grained, and mostly thick-bedded, the interbedded clay/mudstone sequence is brownish gray to maroon red and occurs as continuous beds as well as lenses. Some mudstone/clay beds are bioturbated and seem to be pedogenic surfaces. Results of geochemical investigation of fresh (unaltered) representative sandstone and mudstone samples from three different sections of the formation in the southwestern Kohat plateau are presented and discussed. The average chemical index of alteration (CIA) values of both the sandstone (70-86) and mudstone (71-85) suggest moderate to slightly intense weathering in the source area. However, the high CIA values may also be due to the presence of abundant sedimentary rock fragments, which occur in the studied sandstone, rather than a result of severe weathering. Furthermore, the possibility of intensive chemical weathering in the Himalayas orogenic belt is highly unlikely, as it requires tectonic quiescence for a long period, higher temperature, and humidity. Accordingly, the range of the index of chemical variability values (0.6-2.1) of mudstone and low contents of Rb and Cs in both the mudstone and sandstone indicate somewhat moderate weathering. Furthermore, the Th/U and Rb/Sr ratios of the Kamlial Formation are lower than the corresponding average values for the upper continental crust and post-Archean average Australian shale, which shows that these sediments are first-cycled in origin. However, the Zr/Sc ratio indicates minor contributions from recycled sedimentary sources. The values of authigenic U and the U/Th, V/Cr, Cu/Zn, and Ni/Co ratios all suggest that the Kamlial sediments were deposited under oxidizing conditions.

Petrography and geochemistry of the Kamlial Formation, southwestern Kohat plateau, Pakistan: implications for paleoclimate of the Western Himalayas

The Middle to Late Miocene Kamlial Formation that largely consists of sandstone and interbedded clay/mudstone sequences is exposed in the southwestern part of the Kohat plateau, which constitutes the westernmost extension of the Himalayan Foreland Basin. Whereas the sandstone is gray to brownish gray, fine- to medium-grained, and mostly thick-bedded, the interbedded clay/mudstone sequence is brownish gray to maroon red and occurs as continuous beds as well as lenses. Some mudstone/clay beds are bioturbated and seem to be pedogenic surfaces. Results of geochemical investigation of fresh (unaltered) representative sandstone and mudstone samples from three different sections of the formation in the southwestern Kohat plateau are presented and discussed. The average chemical index of alteration (CIA) values of both the sandstone (70-86) and mudstone (71-85) suggest moderate to slightly intense weathering in the source area. However, the high CIA values may also be due to the presence of abundant sedimentary rock fragments, which occur in the studied sandstone, rather than a result of severe weathering. Furthermore, the possibility of intensive chemical weathering in the Himalayas orogenic belt is highly unlikely, as it requires tectonic quiescence for a long period, higher temperature, and humidity. Accordingly, the range of the index of chemical variability values (0.6-2.1) of mudstone and low contents of Rb and Cs in both the mudstone and sandstone indicate somewhat moderate weathering. Furthermore, the Th/U and Rb/Sr ratios of the Kamlial Formation are lower than the corresponding average values for the upper continental crust and post-Archean average Australian shale, which shows that these sediments are first-cycled in origin. However, the Zr/Sc ratio indicates minor contributions from recycled sedimentary sources. The values of authigenic U and the U/Th, V/Cr, Cu/Zn, and Ni/Co ratios all suggest that the Kamlial sediments were deposited under oxidizing conditions.

___

  • Ahmad S, Ali F, Ahmad I, Hamidullah S (2001). Geological map of the Kohat Plateau, NW Himalaya, NWFP. Peshawar, Pakistan: Geological Bulletin of the University of Peshawar.
  • Awasthi N (1982). Tertiary plant megafossils from the Himalaya - a review. Palaeobotanist 30: 25–267.
  • Bjorlykke K (1974). Geochemical and mineralogical influence of Ordovician island arcs on epicontinental clastic sedimentation: a study of Lower Palaeozoic sedimentation in the Oslo region, Norway. Sedimentology 21: 251–272.
  • Connor JJ (1990). Geochemical stratigraphy of the Yellowjacket Formation (Middle Proterozoic) in the area of the Idaho Cobalt Belt, Lemhi County, Idaho, with analytical contributions from Bartel AJ, Brandt E, Briggs PH, Danahey S, Fey D, Hatfield DB, Malcolm M, Merritt V, Riddle G, Roof S et al. USGS Open-File Report 90-0234: 1–30.
  • Cox R, Lowe DR, Cullers RL (1995). The influence of sediment recycling and basement composition on evolution of mudrock chemistry in the southwestern United States. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 59: 2919–2940.
  • Critelli S, Garzanti E (1994). Provenance of the Lower Tertiary Murree Redbeds (Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis, Pakistan) and initial rising of the Himalayas. Sediment Geol 89: 265–284.
  • Cullers RL (2000). The geochemistry of shales, siltstones and sandstones of Pennsylvanian-Permian age, Colorado, USA: implications for provenance and metamorphic studies. Lithos 51: 181–203.
  • DeCelles PG, Gehrels GE, Quade J, Ojha TP, Kapp PA, Upreti BN (1998). Neogene foreland basin deposits, erosional unroofing and the kinematic history of the Himalayan fold-thrust belt, western Nepal. Geol Soc Am Bull 110: 2–21.
  • Dill H, Teshner M, Wehner H (1988). Petrography, inorganic and organic geochemistry of Lower Permian Carboniferous fan sequences (Brandschiefer Series) FRG. Constraints to their palaeogeography and assessment of their source rock potential. Chem Geol 67: 307–325.
  • Dypvik H (1984). Geochemical compositions and depositional conditions of Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous Yorkshire clays, England. Geol Mag 121: 489–504.
  • Fedo CM, Nesbitt HW, Young GM (1995). Unraveling the effects of potassium metasomatism in sedimentary rocks and paleosols, with implications for paleoweathering conditions and provenance. Geology 23: 921–924.
  • Govindaraju K (1989). Compilation of working values and sample description of 272 geostandards. Geostandards Newsletter 13: 1–113.
  • Gu ZY, Lal D, Liu TS, Guo ZT, Southon J, Caffee MW (1997). Weathering histories of Chinese loess deposits based on uranium and thorium series nuclides and cosmogenic 10Be. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 61: 5221–5231.
  • Hallberg RO (1976). A geochemical method for investigation of paleoredox conditions in sediments. Ambio Spec Rep 4: 139– 147.
  • Herron MM (1988). Geochemical classification of terrigenous sands and shales from core or log data. J Sediment Pet 58: 820–829.
  • Hodges KV (2000). Tectonics of the Himalaya and southern Tibet from two perspectives. Geol Soc Am Bull 112: 324–350.
  • Jones B, Manning DC (1994). Comparison of geochemical indices used for the interpretation of palaeoredox conditions in Ancient mudstones. Chem Geol 111: 111–129.
  • Kadri IB (1995). Petroleum Geology of Pakistan. Lahore, Pakistan: Ferozsons.
  • Kazmi AH, Rana RA (1982). Tectonic map of Pakistan: scale 1:2000000. Quetta, Pakistan: Geological Survey of Pakistan.
  • Kumar R, Ghosh SK, Sangode SJ (2003). Mio-Pliocene sedimentation history in the northwestern part of the Himalayan foreland basin, India. Current Sci 84: 1006–1113.
  • Lasaga AC, Soler JM, Ganor J, Burch TE, Nagy KL (1994). Chemical weathering rate laws and global geochemical cycles. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 58: 2361–2386.
  • Lee YI (2002). Provenance derived from the geochemistry of Late Paleozoic-Early Mesozoic mudrocks of the Pyeongan supergroup, Korea. Sediment Geol 149: 219–235.
  • Lee YI, Ko HK (1997). Illite crystallinity and fluid inclusion analysis across a Paleozoic disconformity in central Korea. Clays Clay Min 45: 147–157.
  • Lee YI, Sheen DH (1998). Detrital modes of the Pyeongan Supergroup (Late Carboniferous-Early Triassic) sandstones in the Samcheog coalfield, Korea: Implication for provenance and tectonic setting. Sediment Geol 119: 219–238.
  • McLennan SM, Hemming S, McDaniel DK, Hanson GN (1993). Geochemical approaches to sedimentation, provenance and tectonics. In: Johnsson MJ, Basu A, editors. Processes Controlling the Composition of Clastic Sediments. Boulder, CO, USA: Geological Society of America Special Paper 284, pp. 21–40.
  • McLennan SM, Taylor SR (1980). Th and U in sedimentary rocks: crustal evolution and sedimentary recycling. Nature 285: 621– 624.
  • Meigs AJ, Burbank DW, Beck RA (1995). Middle-late Miocene (>10 Ma) formation of the Main Boundary thrust in the western Himalaya. Geology 23: 423–426.
  • Meissner CR, Master JM, Rashid MA, Hussain M (1974). Stratigraphy of the Kohat Quadrangle, Pakistan. USGS Prof Pap 716-D: 1–30.
  • Metcalfe RP (1993). Pressure, temperature and time constraints on metamorphism across the Main Central Thrust zone and High Himalayan slab in the Garhwal Himalaya. In: Treloar PJ, Searle MP, editors. Himalayan Tectonics. London, UK: Geological Society of London Special Publication 74, pp. 485–509.
  • Najman Y (2006). The detrital record of orogenesis: a review of approaches and techniques used in the Himalayan sedimentary basins. Earth Sci Rev 74: 1–72.
  • Najman Y, Garzanti E, Pringle M, Bickle M, Stix J, Khan I (2003). Early-Middle Miocene paleodrainage and tectonics in the Pakistan Himalaya. Geol Soc Am Bull 115: 1265–1277.
  • Nath BN, Bau M, Ramalingeswara Rao B, Rao CM (1997). Trace and rare earth elemental variation in Arabian Sea sediments through a transect across the oxygen minimum zone. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 61: 2375–2388.
  • Nesbitt HW, Markovics G, Price RC (1980). Chemical processes affecting alkalis and alkaline earths during continental weathering. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 44: 1659–1666.
  • Nesbitt HW, Young GM (1982). Early Proterozoic climates and plate motions inferred from major element chemistry of lutites. Nature 299: 715–717.
  • Pettijohn FJ, Potter PE, Siever R (1987). Sand and Sandstone. 2nd ed. New York, NY, USA: Springer.
  • Pierini C, Mizusaki AMP, Scherer CMS, Alves DB (2002). Integrated stratigraphic and geochemical study of the Santa Maria and Caturrita formations (Triassic of the Parana Basin), southern Brazil. J South Am Earth Sci 15: 669–681.
  • Potter PE, Maynard JB, Pryor WA (1980). Sedimentology of Shale. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
  • Quade J, Cerling TE (1995). Expansion of C4 grasses in the Late Miocene of Northern Pakistan: evidence from stable isotopes in paleosols. Palaeo Palaeo Palaeo 115: 91–116.
  • Raiverman V (2002). Foreland Sedimentation in Himalayan Tectonic Region: A Relook at the Orogenic Process. Dehradun, India: Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh.
  • Roddaz M, Viers J, Brusset S, Baby P, Herail G (2005). Sediment provenances and drainage evolution of the Neogene Amazonian foreland basin. Earth Planetary Sci Lett 239: 57–78.
  • Ruffell A, Worden R (2000). Palaeoclimate analysis using spectral gamma-ray data from the Aptian (Cretaceous) of southern England and southern France. Palaeo Palaeo Palaeo 155: 265– 283.
  • Searle MP, Corfield RI, Stephenson B, McCarron J (1997). Structure of the north Indian continental margin in the Ladakh-Zanskar Himalayas: Implications for the timing of obduction of the Spontang ophiolite, India-Asia collision and deformation events in the Himalaya. Geol Mag 134: 297–316.
  • Seeber L, Armbruster JG, Quittmeyer RC (1981). Seismicity and continental subduction in the Himalayan arc. In: AGU Geodynamics Series 5, Washington, DC, USA, pp. 259–279.
  • Seeber L, Gornitz V (1983). River profiles along the Himalayan arc as indicators of active tectonics. Tectonophysics 92: 335–367.
  • Shah SMI (2009). Stratigraphy of Pakistan. Quetta, Pakistan: Geological Survey of Pakistan Memoir 22.
  • Shaw TJ, Geiskes JM, Jahnke RA (1990). Early diagenesis in differing depositional environments: the response of transition metals in pore water. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 54: 1233–1246.
  • Ullah K, Arif M, Shah MT (2006). Petrography of sandstones from the Kamlial and Chinji formations, southwestern Kohat plateau, NW Pakistan: implications for source lithology and paleoclimate. J Himalayan Earth Sci 39: 1–13.
  • Valdiya SK (1992). The Main Boundary Thrust zone of Himalaya, India. Annal Tectonicae 6: 54–84.
  • Vance D, Harris N (1999). Timing of prograde metamorphism in the Zanskar Himalaya. Geology 27: 395–398.
  • West RM (1984). Siwalik faunas from Nepal: palaeoecologic and palaeoclimatic implications. In: Whyte RO, editor. The Evolution of the East Asian Environment. Hong Kong: Centre for Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong, pp. 724–744.
  • Wignall PB, Myers KJ (1988). Interpreting the benthic oxygen levels in mudrocks, a new approach. Geology 16: 452–455.
  • Yan Y, Xia B, Lin G, Cui X, Hu X, Yan P, Zhang F (2007). Geochemistry of the sedimentary rocks from the Nanxiong Basin, South China and implications for provenance, palaeoenvironment and palaeoclimate at the K/T boundary. Sediment Geol 197: 127–140.
  • Yin A (2006). Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Himalayan orogen as constrained by along-strike variation of structural geometry, exhumation history, and foreland sedimentation. Earth Sci Rev 76: 1–131.
  • Zaleha MJ (1997). Intra- and extra-basinal controls on fluvial deposition in the Miocene Indo-Gangetic foreland basin, northern Pakistan. Sedimentology 44: 369–390.