Bir İmparatorluk Seyyahı: On Dokuzuncu Yüzyıl Sonlarına Ait Makaleleri ve Notları Işığında Mark Sykes’ın Ortadoğu İzlenimleri

Bu çalışmanın amacı Mark Sykes’ın seyyah olarak deneyimlerini ve bunların Britanya ve Ortadoğu’ya yönelik tutumunu nasıl şekillendirdiğini incelemek, 1916 tarihli Sykes-Picot Antlaşması’yla Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun bölünmesindeki rolüyle bilinen Sykes’ın Ortadoğu’ya dair ilk gözlemlerini ve Osmanlı-İngiliz ilişkileriyle bağı ortaya koymaktır. Bu amaçla Sykes’ın kişisel notları ve yayınları içerdikleri farklar karşılaştırılacak, böylece farklı metinlerinde Sykes’ın Oryantalist düşünce yapısı ve Ortadoğu’ya dair ilk izlenimlerini nasıl belirdiğini kavramak mümkün olacaktır. Arşiv kaynaklarından da yararlanan bu çalışma, Sykes’ın fikirlerinin nasıl geliştiğini ve Ortadoğu’nun siyasi gündemini ne tür bir biçimlendirici rol oynadığını anlamamıza yardımcı olacaktır

Anahtar Kelimeler:

Mark Sykes, İngiliz-Osmanlı ilişkileri, seyahat, Oryantalizm, Ortadoğu

An Imperial Traveler: Mark Sykes and His Impressions in the Middle East through His Article and Notes in the Late 19th Century

The purpose of this study is to explore Mark Sykes’s experiences as a traveler and how they shaped his attitude towards Britain and the Middle East. Renowned for his contribution to the partition of the Ottoman Empire via the Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916, this study examines his early observations of the Middle East and his relation to the political agenda of Ottoman-British relations. Sykes’s private notes and his publications will be compared for differences enabling us to discern how his two texts reveal his Orientalist mindset and early impressions of the Middle East. With reference to archival sources, this study helps us to understand how Sykes’s opinions developed and were formative in the political agenda of the Middle East.

Keywords:

Mark Sykes, British-Ottoman relations, Travelling, Orientalism, Middle East,

PDF

___

Archival Sources
Türk Tarih Kurumu Microfilm Archive (from Hull University Archive), The papers of Sir Mark Sykes, 1879-1919 [mikroform]: with special reference to the Sykes-Picot Agreement and the Middle East, Microfilm 2, DDSY2/4 Foreign Affairs and Travel (1888-1919), 4/1 10 March 1898-1 April 1898, Pre-war notebook, Journey from Jericho to Damascus, Contains some drawings. 1-32 (pages of microfilm number in image).
Secondary Sources:
Barr, James, A Line in the Sand: Britain, France and the Struggle for the Mastery of the Middle East, Simon & Schuster UK Ltd., London 2011.
Behdad, Ali, “Orientalism and Middle East Travel Writing”, Orientalism and Literature, ed. Geoffrey P. Nash, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2019, 185-201.
Berdine, Michael, Redrawing the Middle East: Sir Mark Sykes, Imperialism and the Sykes-Picot Agreement, I.B.Tauris & Co. Ltd, London & New York 2018.
Beauchamp, Michael K., “Sir Mark Sykes”, The Encyclopedia of Middle East Wars: The United States in the Persian Gulf, Afghanistan, and Iraq Conflicts, ed. Spencer C. Tucker, III, ABC-CLIO, California 2010, 1191-1192.
Blair-Brysac, Shareen & Meyer, Karl Ernest, Kingmakers: The Invention of the Modern Middle East, W. W. Norton & Company, New York 2008.
Bridges, Roy, “Exploration and Travel Outside Europe, 1720-1914”, The Cambridge Companion to Travel Writing, eds. Peter Hulme and Tim Youngs, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002, 53-69.
Dandekar, R. N., “The Twenty-First International Congress of Orientalists, Paris 23rd to 31st of July 1948”, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 29/¼, 1948, i-xxvi.
Ginzburg, Carlo Wooden Eyes: Nine Reflections on Distance, trans. Martin Ryle & Kate Soper, Columbia University Press, New York 2001.
Gladstone, William Ewart, Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East, New York and Montreal: Lovell, Adam, Wesson & Company, 1876.
Gürpınar, Doğan, “The Rise and Fall of Turcophilism in Nineteenth-Century British Discourses: Visions of the Turk, ‘Young’ and ‘Old’”, British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 39/3 (2012).
Hanioğlu, M. Şükrü, A Brief History of the Late Ottoman Empire, Princeton University Press, Princeton 2008.
Hobsbawm, Eric, The Age of Empires: 1875-1914, Vintage Books, New York 1989.
Irizarry, Ashley M., “Possessing the Holy Land: The Palestine Exploration Fund and the American Palestine Exploration Society” (2014). Dissertations, Theses, and Masters Projects. Paper 1539626767. https://dx.doi.org/doi:10.21220/s2-k1ww-7g39.
Kamel, Lorenzo, “Artificial nations? The Sykes-Picot and the Islamic State’s narratives in a historical perspective”, Diacronie, 25/1 (2016), 1-20.
Karaca, Taha Niyazi, Büyük Oyun: İngiltere Başbakanı Gladstone’un Osmanlı’yı Yıkma Planı, Timaş Yayınları, İstanbul 2018.
________________, “İngi̇ltere’ni̇n Osmanlı Devleti̇’ni̇ Koruma Poli̇ti̇kasını Terk Etmesi̇”, International New Tendencies Congress in Ottoman Researches (INOCTE), 7-9 October 2016, Sarajevo 2016, 519-528.
Kedourie, Elie, In the Anglo-Arab Labyrinth: The McMahon-Husayn Correspondence and its Interpretations 1914-1939, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2010.
Lockman, Zackhary, The Contending Vision of the Middle East: The History and Politics of Orientalism, Cambridge University Press, New York 2010.
Moscrop, John James, Measuring Jerusalem: The Palestine Exploration Fund and the British Interests in the Holy Land, Leicester University Press, Leicester & New York 2000.
Ortaylı, İlber, İki̇nci̇ Abdülhami̇t Dönemi̇nde Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda Alman Nüfuzu, Ankara Üniversitesi Basımevi, Ankara 1981.
Pflanze, Otto, Bismarck and the Development of Germany, Volume III: The Period of Fortification 1880-1898, Princeton University Press, Princeton 1990.
Polat, Ü. Gülsüm, “Türk-Alman Propagandası Karşısında Arap Bürosu’nun Kuruluşu”, Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Dergisi, 26/76 (2010), 97-132.
Roderic, H. Davison, “The Modernization of Ottoman Diplomacy in the Tanzimat Period”, Ankara Üniversitesi Osmanlı Tarihi Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi Dergisi, 2000, 11, 862-874.
Said, Edward, Orientalism, Vintage Books, New York 1979.
Salhi, Zahia Smail, “The Maghreb and the Occident: Towards the Construction of an Occidentalist Discourse”, Orientalism Revisited Art, Land and Voyage, ed. Ian Richard Netton, Routledge, Oxon 2013, 254-279.
Shane, Leslie, Mark Sykes: His Life and Letters, Cassell and Company, London 1923.
Sluglett, Peter, et al. War and Diplomacy : The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878 and the Treaty of Berlin. University of Utah Press, 2011.
Sykes, Christopher Simon, The Man Who Created the Middle East, William Collins Publishers, London 2017.
Sykes, Mark, The Caliphs' Last Heritage: A Short History of the Turkish Empire, Macmillan And Co., London 1915.
__________, “Narrative of a Journey East of Jebel Ed-Druse”, Palestine Exploration Quarterly, 31/1 (1899), 47-56.
Şirin, İbrahim, “Seyahatnamelerin Sosyal Bilimlerde Kullanım Değeri: Seyahatname Metodolojisi Geliştirmenin Zorunluluğu”, Türk Yurdu Dergisi, 33/310 (2013), 38-43.
The Palestine Exploration Fund. “Palestine Exploration Quarterly.” pef.org.uk. Retrieved on 7 May, 2020 from https://www.pef.org.uk/publications/palestine-exploration-quarterly/
Türkgeldi, Ali Fuat, Maruf Simalar, prepared by Mehmet Kalpaklı & Sina Akşin Somel, Türk Tarih Kurumu, Ankara 2013.
Wilcox, Andrew, Orientalism and Imperialism from Nineteenth-century Missionary Imaginings to the Contemporary Middle East, Bloomsbury Publishing, London 2018.
Yavuz, M. Hakan, “The Transformation of “Empire” through Wars and Reforms: Integration vs. Oppression”, War and Diplomacy The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 and the Treaty of Berlin, eds. M. Hakan Yavuz with Peter Sluglett, The Universtiy of Utah Press, Salt Lake City 2011, 17-55.