Sosyal Sermaye ve Sağlık Arasındaki İlişki: Ampirik Çalışmalar Ne Gösteriyor?

Neoliberal ekonomi politikaları sonucunda devletin sağlık hizmetleri sunma görevinden geri çekilmeye başlaması ve sağlık sistemlerinin giderek serbest piyasanın parçası olması, toplum sağlığını iyileştirmek için yapısal reformlar yapmak yerine birey ve grupların kaynaklarına odaklanan bir bakış açısını beraberinde getirmiştir. Bu durum sosyal sermaye ve sağlık arasındaki ilişkiye yönelik akademik ilginin artmasına neden olmuştur. Bu çalışma sosyal sermaye ve sağlık arasındaki ilişkiyi ortaya koyan ampirik çalışmaların incelenmesini, bulguların ve kavramsal şemaların genel hatlarıyla ortaya konmasını ve eleştirel sosyolojik bir gözle değerlendirilmesini amaçlayan bir derleme çalışmasıdır. Bu çalışmanın, Türkiye’de son derece az çalışılmış bu alanda yapılacak olan ampirik araştırmalar için bir çerçeve oluşturması hedeflenmektedir. Sosyal sermaye ve sağlık arasındaki ilişkiyi ortaya koyan nicel ampirik çalışmaların büyük çoğunluğunun işlemselleştirme sürecinde sağladığı kolaylık nedeniyle Putnam’ın tanımını temel aldıkları ve genel olarak sosyal sermaye kavramını bir bütün olarak değil, boyutları ve biçimleri üzerinden ele aldıkları gözlenmiştir. Araştırmaların sonuçları sosyal sermayenin farklı boyut ve biçimlerinin sosyal destek, sosyal etki, sosyal kontrol, sosyal katkı, maddi kaynaklara erişim, güven ve kolektif eylem yarattığını ve bunların her birinin sağlık üzerinde etkili olduğunu göstermektedir. Her ne kadar sosyal sermayenin bazı biçimleri sağlık açısından olumuz sonuçlar yaratabiliyorsa da genel olarak sosyal sermayenin birey ve topluluk düzeyinde sağlığı bir dereceye kadar iyileştirme kapasitesinin olduğu görülmektedir. Sosyal sermayeye erişim yollarından biri olan kültürel sermaye kavramından türetilen kültürel sağlık sermayesi kavramı da sağlık eşitsizliklerinin belirli boyutlarında bireylerin kullanabileceği bir savunma mekanizması olarak işlemektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler:

kültürel sağlık sermayesi, sağlık, Sosyal sermaye

The Relation Between Social Capital and Health: What do Empirical Studies Show?

As a consequence of neoliberal economy politics, the states began to retreat from providing health services and health systems began to be a part of free markets. This resulted in a focus on individual and societal assets and resources instead of on structural reforms which could improve health. As a result, academic interest in the relationship between social capital and health increased. This study is a critical review article that will examine, summarize, and evaluate the findings and conceptual framework of the empirical studies on the relationship between social capital and health from a critical sociological perspective. Due to the lack of empirical studies on this subject in Turkey, this study also aims to provide a framework for anticipated empirical research in Turkey. The quantitative empirical studies which examine the relationship between social capital and health are mainly based on Putnam’s definition due to its convenient exposition of the operationalization process. These studies examine the dimensions and forms of social capital rather than discussing the concept in a holistic manner. The research shows that different dimensions and forms of social capital affect health by creating social support, social influence, social control, social participation, access to material resources, and trust and collective action, which all have more specific consequences on health. Although some forms of social capital may cause negative results on health, it seems that social capital in general has the potential to improve individual and societal health to some extent. Derived from cultural capital, cultural health capital is also an important concept within this topic. As one of the ways to access social capital, cultural health capital operates as a defense mechanism for individuals in certain processes as related to health inequalities.

Keywords:

cultural health capital, Social capital, health,

PDF

___

Abel, T. (2008). Cultural capital and social inequality in health. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 62(13), 1–5.
Aida J., Hanibuchi, T., Nakade, M., Hiral, H., Osaka, K., & Kondo, K. (2009). The different effects of vertical social capital and horizontal social capital on dental status: a multilevel analysis. Social Science & Medicine, 69(4), 512–518.
Antonovsky, A. (1996). The salutogenic model as a theory to guide health promotion. Health Promotion International, 111, 11–18.
Berkman, L. F., & Glass, T. (2000). Social integration, social networks, social support, and health. In L. F. Berkman & I. Kawachi (Eds.), Social epidemiology (pp. 137–173). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Berkman, L. & Kawachi, I. (2000). Social cohesion, social capital, and health. In L. F. Berkman & I. Kawachi (Eds.), Social epidemiology (pp. 174–190). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Blaxter, M. (1990). Health and lifestyles. London, UK: Routledge Press.
Bourdieu P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. Richardson (Ed.) Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education (pp. 241–258). New York, NY: Greenwood.
Campbell, C., & Jovchelovitch, S. (2000). Health, community and development: Towards a social psychology of participation. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 10, 255–270.
Cao, W., Li, L., Zhou, X., & Zhour, C. (2015). Social capital and depression: Evidence from urban elderly in China. Aging & Mental Health, 195, 418–429.
Clarke, A. E., Shim, J. K., Mamo, L. & diğ. (2003). Biomedicalization: technoscientific transformations of health, illness, and U.S. biomedicine. American Sociological Review, 68(2),161–185.
Cockerham W. C. (2005). Health lifestyle theory and the convergence of agency and structure. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 46(1), 51–67.
Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology. 94:95–120.
Coleman, J. S. (1990). Foundations of social theory. London, UK: Harcard University Press.
Coletta, N. J., & Cullen, M. L. (2000). The nexus between violent conflict, social capital and social cohesion: Case studies from Camboida and Rwanda. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
Cullen, M., & Whiteford, H. (2001). The Interrelations of Social Capital with Health and Mental Health. Australia: The Commonwealth of Australia.
Cutler, D. M., & Lleras-Muney, A. (2010). Understanding differences in health behaviors by education. Journal of Health Economics, 29(1), 1–28.
D’Hombres, B., Rocco, L., Suhrcke, M., & Mckee, M. (2010). Does social capital determine health? Evidence from eight transition countries. Health Economics, 19(1), 56–74.
Dadoniene, J., Stropuviene, S., Stukas, R., Venalis, A., & Sokka-Isler, T. (2015). Predictors of mortality in patients with rheumatoid arthritis in Lithuania: Data from a cohort study over 10 years. Medicina, 51(1), 25–31.
Dahlgren, G. & Whitehead, M. (1991). Policies and strategies to promote social equity in health. Stockholm, SE: Institute for Futures Studies.
Dubbin, L. A., Chang, J. S., & Shim, J. K. (2013). Cultural health capital and the interactional dynamics of patient-centered care. Social Science & Medicine, 93, 113–120.
Dünya Bankası. (1998). The Initiative on Defining, Monitoring and Measuring Social Capital. Social Capital Initiative Working Paper No.2. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTSOCIALCAPITAL/Resources/SCI-WPS-02.pdf Erişim: 12.02.2018
Eriksson, M. (2010). Social capital, health and community action - implications for health promotion (Doctoral dissertation, Umea University, Sweden). Retrieved from http://www.social-capital.net/docs/Social_Capital_Health_and_Community_Action.pdf
Eriksson, M. (2011). Social capital and health: Implications for health. Global Health Action, 4(5611), 1–11.
Eriksson, M., Dahlgren, L., & Emmelin, M. (2011) Collective actors as driving forces for mobilizing social capital in a local community: What can be learned for health promotion? In H. Westlund & K. Kobayashi (Eds.), Social capital and rural development in the knowledge society (pp. 273–298). Northampton, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Eryiğit Günler, O. (2014). Sosyal sermaye, sağlık ve hastalık. Karamanoğlu Mehmet Bey Üniversitesi Sosyal ve Ekonomik Araştırmalar Dergisi, 16(26), 107–113.
Ferragina, E., & Arrigoni, A. (2017). The rise and fall of social capital: Requiem for a theory? Political Studies Review, 15(3), 355–367.
Fiorillo, D., & Sabatini, F. (2015). Structural social capital and health in Italy. Economics & Human Biology, 17(1), 129–142.
Forsman, A. K., Nyqvist, F., Schierenbeck, I., Gustafson, Y., & Wahlbeck, K. (2012). Structural and cognitive social capital and depression among older adults in two Nordic regions. Aging Men Health, 166, 771–779.
Friedli, L. (2012). What we’ve tried, hasn’t worked: The politics of assets based public health. Critical Public Health, 23(2), 131–145.
Frohlich, K. L., Corin, E., & Potvin, L. (2001). A theoretical proposal for the relationship between context and disease. Sociology of Health & Illness, 23(6), 776–797.
Fujiwara, T., & Kawachi, I. (2008). A prospective study of individual-level social capital and major depression in the United States. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 62(7), 627–633.
Grootaert, C., & Van Bastelaer, T. (2002). Understanding and measuring social capital – a multidisciplinary tool for practitioners. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
Harpham, T., Grant, E., & Thomas, E. (2002). Measuring social capital within health surveys: Key issues. Health Policy and Planning, 17(1), 106–111.
Heaney, C. A., & Israel, B. A. (2002). Social networks and social support. In K. Glanz, B. K. Rimer & F. M. Lewis (Eds.), Health behavior and health education Theory, research, and practice (pp. 185–209). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Islam, M. K., Merlo, J., Kawachi, I., Lindström, M., & Gertdham, U. (2006). Social capital and health. Does egalitarianism matter? A literature review. International Journal for Equity in Health, 5(3), 1–28.
Iwase T., Suzuki, E., Fujiwara, T., Takao, S., Doi, H., & Kawachı, I. (2012). Do bonding and bridging social capital have differential effects on self-rated health? A community based study in Japan. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 66(6), 557–562.
Kamin, T., Kolar, A., & Steiner, P. M. (2013). The role of cultural capital in producing good health: A propensity score study. Slovenian Journal of Public Health, 52(2), 108–118.
Kavanagh, A. M., Bentley, R., Turrell, G., Broom, D. H., & Subramanian, S. V.(2006). Does gender modify associations between self-rated health and the social and economic characteristics of local environments? Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 60(2), 490–495.
Kawachi, I., & Berkman L. (2000). Social cohesion, social capital, and health. In L. F. Berkman & I. Kawachi (Eds.), Social epidemiology (pp. 174–190). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Kawachi, I., Subramanian, S. V., & Kim, D. (2008). Social capital and health: A decade of progress and beyond. In I. Kawachi, S. V. Subramanian & D. Kim (Eds.), Social capital and health (pp. 1–29). New York, NY: Springer.
Kim, D., Subramanian, S. V., & Kawachi, I. (2006). Bonding versus bridging social capital and their associations with self rated health: A multilevel analysis of 40 US communities. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 60, 116–122.
Lakon, C. M., Godette, D. C., & Hipp, J. R. (2008). Network-based approaches for measuring social capital. In I. Kawachi, S.V. Subramanian & D. Kim (Eds.), Social capital and health (pp. 63–82). New York, NY: Springer.
Lareau, A. (2003). Unequal Childhoods. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Lin, N. (2001). Social capital: A theory of social structure and action. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Lleras-Muney, A. (2005). The relationship between education and adult mortality in the U.S.. Review of Economic Studies, 72(1), 189–221.
Malat, J. (2006). Expanding research on the racial disparity in medical treatment with ideas from sociology. Health, 10, 303–321.
Marmot, M. (2010). Fair society, healthy lives: Strategic review of health inequalities in England post 2010. London, UK: The Marmot Review.
Maynard, D. W. (1991). Interaction and asymmetry in clinical discourse. American Journal of Sociology, 97(2), 448–495.
McKenzie, K., Whitley, R., & Weich, S. (2002). Social capital and mental health. British Journal of Psychiatry. 181, 280–283.
Merzel, C., & D’Afflitti, J. (2003). Reconsidering community-based health promotion: Promise, performance, and potential. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 557–574.  
Mishler, E. (1984). The discourse of medicine: Dialectics of medical ınterviews. Norwood, UK: Ablex Publishing.
Mitchell, C. U., & LaGory, M. (2002). Social capital and mental distress in an impoverished community. City & Community, 1(2), 199–222.
Muckenhuber, J., Pollak, L., Stein, K.V., & Dorner, T. E. (2016). Individual cognitive social capital and its relationship with pain and sick leave due to pain in the austrian population. PLoS One, 11(6), e0157909. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0157909
Nakamine, S., Tachikawa, H., Aiba, M., Takashi, S., Noguchi, H., Takahashi, H., & Tamiya, N. (2017). Changes in social capital and depressive states of middle-aged adults in Japan. PLoS One, 12(12), e0189112. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0189112
O’Brien Caughy, M., O’Campo, P. J., & Muntaner, C. (2003). When being alone might be better: Neighborhood poverty, social capital, and child mental health. Social Science & Medicine, 57(1), 227–237.
Oksanen, T., Kouvonen, A., Vahtera, J., Virtanen, M., & Kiimaki, M. (2010). Prospective study of workplace social capital and depression: Are vertical and horizontal components equally important? Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 64(8), 684–689.
Oncini, F., & Guetto, R. (2018). Cultural capital and gender differences in health behaviours: A study on eating, smoking and drinking patterns. Health Sociology Review, 27(1), 15–30.
Poortinga, W. (2012). Community resilience and health: The role of bonding, bridging, and linking aspects of social capital. Health & Place, 182, 286–295.
Portes, A. (1998). Social capital: Its origins and applications in modern sociology. Annual Review of Sociology, 24, 1–24.
Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
Putnam, R. D., Leonardi, R., & Nanetti, R. Y. (1993). Making democracy work: Civic traditions in modern Italy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Ratzan, S. C., & Parker, R. M. (2000). Introduction. In C. Selden, M. Zorn, S. Ratzan & R. Parker (Eds.), National library of medicine current bibliographies in medicine: Health literac (pp. 5–7). Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health.
Rippon, S., & Hopkins, T. (2015). Head, hands and heart: Asset-based approaches in health care. London, UK: The Health Foundation.
Rocco , L., & Suhrcke, M. (2012). Is social capital good for health? A European perspective. Copenhagen, DK: World Health Organization Regional Office.
Sacks, T. K. (2018). Performing black womanhood: A qualitative study of stereotypes and the healthcare encounter. Critical Public Health, 28(1), 59–69.
Shim, J. K. (2010). Cultural health capital: A theoretical approach to understanding health care ınteractions and the dynamics of unequal treatment. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 51(1), 1–15. 
Song, L. (2013). Social capital and health. In W. C. Cockerham (Ed.), Medical sociology on the move: New directions in theory (pp. 233–257). London: Springer.
St John, Daniel (2017). Evaluating Cognitive Social Capital: The Roles of Trust and Reciprocity in Health Research (Thesis, Uppsala University, Swedish). Retrieved from http://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1150103/FULLTEXT01.pdf
Stafford, M., Cummins, S., Macintyre, S., Ellaway, A., & Marmot, M. (2005). Gender differences in the associations between health and neighborhood environment. Social Science & Medicine, 60, 1681–1692.
Stimson, G., & Webb, B. (1975). Going to see the doctor: The consultation process in general practice. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Szreter, S., & Woolcock, M. (2004). Health by association? Social capital, social theory, and the political economy of public health. International Journal of Epidemiology, 33(4), 650–667.
Turner, H., & Schieman, S. (2008). Stress processes across the life course: Introduction and overview. Advances in Life Course Research, 13(1), 1–15. 
Uçar, E. (2016). Sosyal sermaye, politika, ekonomi, sağlık ve eğitim arasındaki ilişkiler. Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 8(17), 518–533.
Ullits, L. R., Ejlskov, L., Mortensen, R. N., Hansen, S. M., Kramer, S. R., Vardhingus-Nielsen H. … Overgaard, C. (2015). Socioeconomic inequality and mortality - a regional Danish cohort study. BMC Public Health, 15(490), 1–9. Uphoff, N. (2000). Understanding social capital: Learning from the analysis and experience of participation. In P. Dasgupta & I. Serageldin (Eds.), Social capital: A multifaceted perspective (pp. 215–249). Washington, DC: World Bank.
Van Der Gaag, M., & Webber, M. (2008). Measurement of individual social capital: Questions, instruments, and measures. In I. Kawachi, S. V. Subramanian & D. Kim (Eds.), Social capital and health (pp. 29–50). New York, NY: Springer.
Veenstra G. (2007). Social space, social class and Bourdieu: Health inequalities in British Columbia, Canada. Health Place, 13, 14–31.
Wall, S. (1995). Epidemiology for prevention. International Journal of Epidemiology, 24, 655–664.
Westlund, H. (2006). Social capital in the knowledge economy. Theory and empirics. Berlin, DE: Springer.  
World Health Organization. (1986). The Ottawa charter for health promotion. Geneva, CH: World Health Organization.
World Health Organization. (2013). Health 2020: European policy framework supporting action across government and society for health and well-being. Copenhagen, DK: World Health Organization.
Wilkinson, R. G. (1996). Unhealthy societies: The afflictions of inequality. London: Routledge.
Williams, G. H. (1995). Theorising class, health and lifestyles: can Bourdieu help us? Sociology of Health and Illness, 17, 577–604.
Woolcock, M. (2001). The place of social capital in understanding social and economic outcomes. Isuma: Canadian Journal of Policy Research, 2(1), 11–17.
Youde, J. (2012). Global health governance. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.