Güneydoğu Asya Bölgesinde Ekoturizmi Post-Kolonyalizm Üzerinden Anlamak

Bu makale, Güneydoğu Asya bölgesinde ekoturizm faaliyetlerinin kapsamını, sürdürülebilirlikle olan ilişkisini ve yerli kültürlerin yaşam tarzlarını deneyimlemek gibi kültürün keşfi üzerinden ekoturizme post-kolonyal bir bakış açısı getirmeye çalışmaktadır. Güneydoğu Asya bölgesi, turizmin en hızlı geliştiği bölgelerden biridir. Özellikle de 1990’lı yıllardan itibaren bölgedeki birçok destinasyonda turizm sektörü güçlü bir büyüme göstermektedir. Bölgede ekoturizm faaliyetleri 1990’lı yıllarda gelişme göstermeye başlamış, 2000’li yıllarla birlikte bölgedeki hemen hemen bütün ülkeler ekoturizmi geliştirecek plan ve programlar uygulamaya başlamıştır. Ekoturizm, yerel ekosistemleri öğrenme ve destekleme gibi çeşitli bileşenleri içermektedir. Bu yüzden, ekoturizmin teorik olarak sürdürülebilir kalkınma ideolojileriyle uyumlu ve bir şekilde yerel topluluklara ekonomik destek sağlamak için tasarlanmış turizm çeşidi olduğu düşünülmektedir. Kitle turizmine alternatif olarak ortaya çıkan ekoturizm, son yıllarda turistler için güçlü bir cazibe merkezi haline geldiğinden turizm girişimcilerinin, devlet kurumlarının ve akademisyenlerin dikkatini çekmektedir. Güneydoğu Asya bölgesinde ekoturizm, hem—görece—yoksulluğun azaltılması ve doğal kaynakların verimli bir şekilde kullanılması gibi sürdürülebilirlik kavramı ile hem de yerli halklar ve onların “otantik” gelenekleri, kültürleri ve yaşam tarzları etrafında “değişiklik” arayışıyla hareket eden turizm söylemleri ile şekillenmektedir. Bölgede ekoturizm, yerli halkın karşı karşıya olduğu birçok ekonomik, sosyal ve kültürel sorunu ele almanın bir yolu olarak görülmektedir. Dolayısı ile bu makale, Güneydoğu Asya bölgesinde ekoturizmin genel bir portresini çizip bölgedeki ekoturizme sürdürülebilirlik ve insan/kültürü deneyimlemek üzerinden post-kolonyal bir bakış açısı getirmeye çalışmaktadır. Nitel araştırma yöntemlerinin kullanıldığı bu makale, birbiri ile ilişkili iki sonucu ortaya koymaktadır; Güneydoğu Asya bölgesinde ekoturizmin sürdürülebilirliğe çare olmadığı ve yerli halkların kültürlerinin öteki olarak tüketilmesine sebebiyet verdiği.

Understanding of Ecotourism through Post-colonialism in the Southeast Asian Region

This article seeks to bring a post-colonical perspective to ecotourism in the Southeast Asia region through concerning the scope of ecotourism activities in the region, its relationship with sustainability, and exploring culture, such as experiencing the lifestyles of indigenous people. While the Southeast Asian region is one of the fastest-growing tourism regions in the world, most destinations in the region have recorded strong growth, particularly since the 1990s. Ecotourism in the region has developed since the 1990s, and almost all countries in the region have implemented plans and programs to develop ecotourism by the 2000s. Ecotourism is a type of tourism that usually includes components such as learning and supporting local ecosystems. Thus, it is designed to help local communities economically in some way, theoretically compatible with sustainable development ideologies. Ecotourism, emerging as an alternative to conventional tourism, has become a strong attraction for tourists in the last few decades and has attracted tourism entrepreneurs, government institutions, and academics. In the Southeast Asian region, ecotourism has been shaped by both the concept of sustainability, such as poverty reduction and efficient use of natural resources and the tourism discourses such as searching of “change” around the indigenous peoples and their “authentic” traditions, cultures, and lifestyles. Ecotourism in the region is seen as a critical way to address many economic, social, and cultural issues indigenous people face. In this context, this article seeks to draw a general portrait of ecotourism in the Southeast Asian region and to bring a post-colonial critique to ecotourism in the region through questioning sustainability and experiencing human/culture. Employing qualitative research methods, this article reveals that one the one hand, ecotourism in the Southeast Asian region has not been a solution to sustainability and it also has led to the consume the cultures of indigenous communities as others on the other.

___

  • Acharya, A. (2012). The making of Southeast Asia. Singapur: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS) Publishing.
  • Akama, J. S., Maingi, S., & Camargo, B. A. (2011). Wildlife conservation, safari tourism and the role of tourism certification in Kenya: A postcolonial critique. Tourism Recreation Research, 36(3), 281–291.
  • Amoamo, M., & Thompson, A. (2010). (Re) Imaging Māori tourism: Representation and cultural hybridity in postcolonial New Zealand. Tourist Studies, 10(1), 35–55.
  • Arı, Y. (2009). Eko Turizm mi Ego Turizm mi? Kazdağı (Balıkesir) Örneği. Ankara Üniversitesi, DTCF, Türkiye Coğrafyası Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi, V. Ulusal Coğrafya Sempozyumu, 421–438.
  • Arslan, Y. (2005). Erdek ve Çevresinin Ekoturizm Açısından Değerlendirilmesi. Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 8(13), 29–53.
  • Bartsch, H. (2013). The impact of trekking tourism in a changing society: A Karen village in Northern Thailand. In J. Michaud (Ed.), Turbulent times and enduring peoples (ss. 209–232). Routledge.
  • Baykal, D., & Çimen, H. (2015). Sürdürülebilir Turizm ve Ekoturizm Sertifikaları. Bildiriler Kitabı, 10.
  • Bayram, A., & Zengin, B. (2012). Ekoturizm Kaynaklarının Geliştirilmesi: Doğu Marmara Bölgesi Örneği. Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey Üniversitesi Sosyal ve Ekonomik Araştırmalar Dergi̇si, 2, 115–122.
  • Boon, J. A. (1977). The anthropological romance of Bali 1597–1972: Dynamic perspectives in marriage and caste, politics and religion. Cambridge University Press, 10.
  • Borneo Travel. (2019). Top 10 homestays in Sabah, Borneo travel. Retrieved from https ://ww w.bor neotr avel. com/b log/s abah- homes tay (Tarihi, S. E. 2021.13 temmuz). Butler, R. W. (1980). The concept of a tourist area cycle of evolution: Implications for management of resources. Canadian Geographer/Le Géographe Canadien, 24(1), 5–12.
  • Chua, B. (2011). Singapore as model: Planning innovations, knowledge experts, Worlding cities: Asian experiments and the art of being global içinde (ss. 29–54). Blackwell Publishing Limited.
  • Cochrane, J. (2009). New directions in Indonesian ecotourism. In J. Hitchcock, V. T. King, ve M. Parnwell (Ed.), Tourism in Southeast Asia: Challenges and new directions (ss. 254–269). Kopenhag: Nias Press.
  • Cohen, E. (1999). Towards an agenda for tourism research in Southeast Asia. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 4(2), 79–89.
  • Colton, J., & Harris, S. (2007). Indigenous ecotourism’s role in community development: The case of the Lennox Island First Nation. In T. Hinch & R. Butler (Eds.), Tourism and indigenous peoples (ss. 238–251). Oxford: Routledge.
  • Craik, W. (1994). The economics of managing fisheries and tourism in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. In M. Musinghe & J. McNeely (Eds.), Protected area economics and policy: Linking conservation and sustainable development (ss. 339–348). New York: The World Bank.
  • Crossette, B. (1998). The great hill stations of Asia. Oxford: Westview Press.
  • Davidov, V. (2013). Ecotourism and cultural production: An anthropology of indigenous spaces in Ecuador. New York: Springer.
  • d'Hauteserre, A. M. (2010). Government policies and indigenous tourism in New Caledonia. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 15(3), 285–303.
  • Douglas, N. (1996). They came for savages: 100 years of tourism in Melanesia. Loffs Harbour: Southern Cross University Press.
  • Duffy, R. (2008.). Neoliberalising nature: Global networks and ecotourism development in Madagasgar. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 16(3), 327–344.Dulnuan, J. R. (2005). Perceived tourism impact on indigenous communities:
  • A case study of Sagada in Mountain Province. In R. B. A. Alampay (Ed.), Sustainable tourism challenges for the Philippines (ss. 161–203) APEC Study Center Network.
  • Dünya Bankası. (2020). International tourism, number of arrivals. Retrieved from https ://da ta.wo rldba nk.or g/ind icato r/ST. INT.A RVL?l ocati ons=Z 4-VN- TH-SG -PH-I D-MY- LA-MM (Tarihi, S. E. 2021.14 temmuz).
  • Dünya Turizm ve Seyahat Konseyi. (2020). World travel and tourism council data. Retrieved from https ://kn oema. com/W TTC20 19/wo rld-t ravel -and- touri sm-co uncil -data ?coun try=1 00145 0-sou th-ea st-as ia (Tarihi, S. E. 2021.14 temmuz).
  • Epicure ve Culture. (2018). Ethical travel: Thailand’s Long Neck Women. Retrieved from https ://ep icure andcu lture .com/ thail and-l ong-n eck-w omen/ (Tarihi, S. E. 2021.14 temmuz).
  • Gregory, D., Johnston, R., Pratt, G., Watts, M., & Whatmore, S. (2011). The dictionary of human geography. Londra: John Wiley & Sons.
  • Hall, C. M. (1994). Ecotourism in Australia, New Zealand and the South Pacific: Appropriate tourism or a new form of ecological imperialism? Ecotourism: A sustainable option?. In E. Cater, G. Lowman & G. (Eds.), Ecotourism: A sustainable option? (ss. 137–157). Chichester: Wiley.
  • Hall, M. C., & Tucker, H. (2004). An introduction. In M. C. Hall & H. Tucker (Eds.), Tourism and postcolonialism: Contested discourses, identities and representations (ss. 1–25). Routledge.
  • Hector, C. (1996). Tourism, ecotourism, and protected areas: The state of nature-based tourism around the world and guidelines for its development. Washington: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
  • Hinch, T., & Butler, R. (2007). Introduction: Revisiting common ground. In T. Hinch & R. Butler (Eds.), Tourism and indigenous people (ss. 19–30). Routledge.
  • Hitchcock, M. (1999). Tourism and ethnicity: Situational perspectives. International Journal of Tourism Research, 1(1), 17–32.
  • Horwarth HTL. (2018). Market report ASIA PACIFIC: Regional tourism Trends 2018. Horwarth HTL. Retrieved from https ://co rpora te.cm s-hor wathh tl.co m/wp- conte nt/up loads /site s/2/2 018/0 5/MR_ AP_RE GIONA L-TOU RISM- TREND S.pdf (Tarihi, S. E. 2021.13 temmuz).
  • Hvenegaard, G. T., & Dearden, P. (1998). Ecotourism versus tourism in a Thai National Park. Annals of Tourism Research, 25(3), 700–720.
  • Kayoko, I. (2007). Creating diversity: Ethnic tourism and hill tribes of Northern Thailand. Memoirs of Institute of Humanities, Human and Social Sciences, Ritsumeikan University, 89, 37–55.
  • Koçan, N. (2012). Ekoturizm ve Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma: KızılcahamamÇamlıdere (Ankara) Jeopark ve eoturizm Projesi. Karadeniz Fen Bilimleri Dergisi, 3(1), 69–82.
  • Krause, G. (1988). Bali 1912 (W. H. Mabbett, Trans.). Wellington, January Books.
  • Lindberg, K., Furze, B., Staff, M., & Black, R. (1997). Asia-Pacific forestry sector outlook study: Ecotourism and other services derived from forests in the Asia-Pacific region: Outlook to 2010. Working paper APFSOS/WP/24. Bangkok: Forest Service United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved from http: //www .fao. org/3 /w771 4e/w7 714e0 6.htm #3.3% 20ove rview %20of %20to urism %20an d%20e cotou rism% 20in% 20the %20as ia%20 pacif​ic%20 regio n (Tarihi, S. E. 2021.13 temmuz).
  • Luke, T. W. (1997). The world wildlife fund: Ecocolonialism as funding the worldwide “wise use”; of nature. Capitalism Nature Socialism, 8(2), 31–61. Ly, T. P., & Bauer, T. (2016). Ecotourism in mainland Southeast Asia: Theory and practice. Tourism, Leisure and Global Change, 1(1), 61–80.
  • MacDonald, K. I. (2003). IUCN: A history of constraint. Address given to the Permanent Workshop of the Centre for the Philosophy of Law Içinde, Université Catholique de Louvain.
  • Mansvelt, J. (2005). Geographies of consumption. Londra: Sage.
  • Morrisey, J., Nally, D., Strohmayer, U., & Whelan, Y. (2014). Key concepts in historical geography. Sage. Nam Ha Project. (t.y.). The Laos Nam Ha national protected area network; list of national protected area in Laos, Nam Ha NPA-national park in Luang Namtha, Laos. Retrieved from https ://ww w.nam ha-np a.org / info /laos npa_ netwo rk.ht m (Erişildi 2021.13 temmuz).
  • Nayak, A., & Jeffrey, A. (2013). Geographical thought: An introduction to ideas in human geography. Routledge.
  • Osborne, M. (2010). Southeast Asia: An introductory history. Crows Nest: ReadHowYouWant.com.
  • Parnwell, M. (2009). A political ecology of sustainable tourism in Southeast Asia. In M. Hitchcock, V. T. King, & M. Parnwell (Eds.), Tourism in Southeast Asia: Challenges and new directions (ss. 236–253). Nias Press.
  • Petry, J. (1996). Northern exposure: Touring the less travelled areas of northern Thailand no longer means roughing it. PATA Travel News. s. 10.
  • PohPoh, W. (2003). Marine ecotourism and protected areas in Southeast Asia. Îles et Archipels, 32(1), 99–110.
  • Richter, L. (2009). Tourism policy-making in Southeast Asia: A twenty-first century perspective. In M. itchcock, V. T. King, & M. Parnwell (Eds.), Tourism in Southeast Asia: Challenges and new directions. (ss. 99–104). Nias Press.
  • Romeril, M. (1985). Tourism and the environment—Towards a symbiotic relationship: (Introductory paper). International Journal of Environmental Studies, 25(4), 215–218.
  • Russell, C. L., & Ankenman, M. J. (1996). Orangutans as photographic collectibles: Ecotourism and the commodification of nature. Tourism Recreation Research, 21(1), 71–78.
  • Şahin, İ. F. (2009). Erzincan İli’nin Turizm Potansiyeli ve İldeki Ekoturizm Uygulamalari. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi, 14(22), 69–88.
  • Said, E. (1978). Orientalism: Western concepts of the Orient. Vintage Book Company.
  • Savage, V. R., Kong, L., & Yeoh, B. S. A. (1993). The human geography of Southeast Asia: An analysis of post-war developments. Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography, 14(2), 229–251.
  • Sheridan, L. M., & Halpenny, E. (2002). Conference Report: The world Ecotourism Summit. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 10(5), 449–453.
  • Suntikul, W. (2007). The effects of tourism development on indigenous populations in Luang Namtha Province, Laos. In T. Hinch & R. Butler (Eds.), Tourism and indigenous peoples (ss. 146–158). Routledge.
  • Trip Canvas. (2017). Make a difference in Bali: Travel to these 9 ecovillages you’ve probably never heard of, TripCanvas Indonesia. 13 Aralık. Retrieved from https ://in dones ia.tr ipcan vas.c o/bal i/loc al-ec ovill ages/ (Son Erişim Tarihi:13 Temmuz 2021).
  • Turoğlu, H., & Özdemir, H. (2005). Bartin İlinin Ekoturizm Potansiyelinin Belirlenmesi. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi, 10(13), 97–116.
  • Uluslararası Ekoturizm Derneği. (2019). What is ecotourism. The International Ecotourism Society Retrieved from https ://ec otour ism.o rg/wh at-is -ecot ouris m/. (Tarihi, S. E. 2021.14 temmuz).
  • Wang, G. (2005). Nation-building: Five Southeast Asian histories. Singapur: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
  • Weaver, D. (2002). Asian ecotourism: Patterns and themes. Tourism Geographies, 4(2), 153–172.
  • West, P., & Carrier, J. (2004). Ecotourism and authenticity: Getting away from it all? Current Anthropology, 45(4), 483–498.
  • Wood, R. E. (1984). Ethnic tourism, the state, and cultural change in Southeast Asia. Annals of Tourism Research, 11(3), 353–374.
  • Zeppel, H. (2006). Indigenous ecotourism: Sustainable development and management. Cabi Publishing.