Hollanda’da Kadınların Kısmi Süreli İstihdamı ve Etkileri
Hollanda’da kısmi süreli istihdam geçen 30 yıl içinde önemli derecedeartmış ve en yaygın çalışma biçimlerinden biri haline gelmiştir.Hollanda’da kısmi süreli kadın istihdam oranı diğer OECDülkelerindekinden yüksektir. Bu ülkede çalışan dört kadından üçükısmi süreli çalışmaktadır. 2009 yılında kadınların kısmi süreli çalışmaoranı yüzde 75,8 erkeklerinkinden yüzde 24,9 üç kat daha fazladır. Hollanda’da kadınların kısmi süreli istihdam oranı artarken, hane yapısı tek gelir getiren erkek modelinden erkeğin tam zamanlı kadının ise kısmi süreli çalıştığı modele doğru değişmektedir. Sınırlı ücret artışları ve iş paylaşımı 1980’li yıllardan bu yana Hollanda modelinin merkezinde yer almaktadır. Hollanda’da kısmi süreli çalışma tam süreli çalışma gibi güvenceli ve devamlı olduğu için çoğu zaman eğreti çalışma olarak kabul edilmez. Fakat çoğunlukla kadınların çalıştığı aşırı a-tipik ve aşırı kısmi süreli işler güvencesiz, düşük ücretli, gelip geçici ve eğretidir. Gönülsüz kısmi süreli istihdam oranı düşük olmakla birlikte, kısmi süreli istihdamın uzun dönemli olumsuz etkilerinin üstesinden bütünüyle gelinememiştir. Aynı zamanda, istihdam geçişkenliklerinde cinsiyete dayalı eşitsizlik varlığını sürdürmekte ve kadınlar erkeklerden dikkate değer biçimde daha az gelir elde etmektedir. Emeklilik geliri, kariyer gelişimi, yoksulluk riski ve kadının ekonomik bağımsızlılığı üzerinde kısmi süreli çalışmanın olumsuz etkileri vardır
Part-time employment has been significantly increasing in theNetherlands for the past three decades and become one of the mostextended patterns of work. Female part-time employment rate in theNetherlands is higher than in other OECD countries. In thiscountry, three in four working women work part-time. The part-timeemployment rate for women 75,8% is three times higher the parttime employment rate for men 24,9% in 2009. In the Netherlands,while women's part-time employment rate has continued to rise, thestructure of the households is changing from a single earner couplesto one-and-a-half earner couples. Wage moderation and job sharing have been at the heart of theNetherlands’ model since the 1980s. Part-time work is usually notregarded as precarious work, since part-time work is as permanentand secure as full-time work in the Netherlands. But very atypical andvery short part-time jobs that women mostly work are insecure, lowpaid, casual and precarious. While the rate of involuntary part-time employment is low, not alllonger-term adverse impacts have been overcome. Also genderinequality in employment transitions is evident and women earnconsiderably less than men. There are negative impacts of part-timework on economic independence of women, poverty risk, careerprogression and retirement income
___
- Allaart, Piet-Bellmann, Lutz (2007), “Reasons for part-time work: an empirical
analysis for Germany and The Netherlands,” International Journal of Manpower, Vol.
28 No. 7, s. 557–570.
- Becker, Uwe (2001), “A ‘Dutch Model’: Employment Growth by Corporatist
Consensus andWage Restraint? A Critical Account of an Idyllic View, New Political
Economy, Vol. 6, No. 1.
- Booth Alison L.-Van Ours, Jan C. (2010), Part-Time Jobs: What Women Want?
IZA Discussion Paper No. 4686.
- Bovenberg, Lans-Wilthagen, Ton (2008), “On the Road to Flexicurity: Dutch
proposals for a pathway towards better transition security and higher labour market
mobility,” European Journal of Social Security, Vol. 10, No. 4, s. 325–346.
- Bovenberg, Lans-Wilthagen, Ton–Bekker, Sonja (2008), “Flexicurity: Lessons
and Proposals from the Netherlands,” CESifo DICE Report 4/2008, p. 9–14.
- Broughton, Andrea-Biletta, Isabella-Kullander, Mats (2010), Flexible forms of
work: ‘very atypical’ contractual arrangements, Comparative study, European
Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions.
- Burri, Susanne (2006), “Flexibility and Security, Working Time, and WorkFamily Policies,” Precarious Work, Women and the New Economy: The Challenge to
- Legal Norms, Ed. by Judy Fudge-Rosemary Owens, Oñati International Series in Law
and Society, Hart Publishing, s. 305-328.
- Burri, Susanne D. (2009), The Netherlands: Precarious employment in a context
of flexicurity, GWD/CPD Working Paper Series,
[http://www.genderwork.ca/cpdworkingpapers/burri.pdf]. (28.02.2011)
- Cuesta, Maite Blazquez-Martin, Nuria Elena Ramos (2009), “Part-time
employment: a comparative analysis of Spain and the Netherlands,” European Journal
of Law and Economics, Vol. 28, No. 3, s. 223–256.
- Dulk, den Laura (2005, “Flexible work arrangements and the employment of
women: a Dutch perspective Statements and Comments,” Peer Review- Peer country
comment papers, (26–27 May).
- EC (2010), Employment in Europe 2010, European Commission DirectorateGeneral for Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities, Publications Office
of the European Union, Brussels.
- EUROFOUND (2007), Gender and career development, European
Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions,
[http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/pubdocs/2007/23/en/1/ef0723en.pdf].
(28.02.2011)
- EUROSTAT (2011), Employment by sex, age groups and economic activity
(from 2008, NACE rev.2),
[http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/setupModifyTableLayout.do]. (28.02.2011)
- Euwals, Rob–Hogerbrugge, Maurice (2004), Explaining the Growth of PartTime Employment: Factors of Supply and Demand, IZA Discussion Paper No. 1124.
- Fransen, Eva–Plantenga, Janneke-Vlasblom, Jan Dirk (2010), “Why do women
still earn less than men? Decomposing the Dutch gender pay gap, 1996–2006, Utrecht
School of Economics Tjalling C. Koopmans Research Institute Discussion Paper
Series 10–09.
- Gustafsson, Siv- Kenjoh, Eiko- Wetzels, Cécile (2003), “Employment Choices
and Pay Differences between Nonstandard and Standard Work in Britain, Germany,
the Netherlands, and Swedens,” Nonstandard Work in Developed Economies Causes
and Consequences Ed. by Susan Houseman-Machiko Osawa), W.E. Upjohn Institute
for Employment Research Kalamazoo, Michigan.
- Hartog, Joop (1999), “The Netherlands: So what's so special about the Dutch
model?” International Labour Office Employment and Training Papers No. 54.
- Hesselink, John Klein (2010), “Netherlands: Flexible forms of work: 'very
atypical' contractual arrangements”, EUROFOUND Comparative Reports
[http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/ewco/studies/tn0812019s/nl0812019q.htm].
(28.02.2011)
- ILO (2010), Women in labour markets: Measuring progress and identifying
challenges, International Labour Organization, Geneva.
- Kleinknecht, Alfred–Naastepad, C.W.M. (2005), “The Netherlands: Failure of a
Neo-classical Policy Agendas,” European Planning Studies, Vol. 13, No. 8.
- Misra, Joya–Jude, Lucien (2006), “Do Family Policies Shape Women’s
Employment- A Comparative Historical Analysis of France and the Netherlands”,
University of Massachusetts, Social and Demographic Research Institute,
[http://www.umass.edu/sadri/pdf/WP/WP4%20-%20Misra%20Jude.pdf].
(28.02.2011)
- O’Reilly, Jacqueline (1997), “Labour Adjustment through Part-time Work,”
International Handbook of Labour Market Policy and Evaluation. (Edit. Gunther
Schmid vd.) Edward Elgar Publication.
- OECD (2002), OECD Employment Outlook 2002, Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development, Paris.
- OECD (2004), OECD Economic Surveys: Netherlands 2004, Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris.
- OECD (2008), OECD Economic Surveys: Netherlands 2008, Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris.
- OECD (2009), Society at a Glance 2009, Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris.
- OECD (2010), OECD Employment Outlook 2010 Moving Beyond the Jobs
Crisis, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris.
- OECD (2011), OECD Employment and Labour Market Statistics,
[http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/employment/data/oecd-employment-and-labourmarket-statistics/labour-market-programmes-expenditure-and-participants_data00312-en]. (28.02.2011)
- Pfau-Effinger, Birgit (1998), “Culture or Structure as Explanations for
Differences in Part-Time Work in Germany, Finland and the Netherlands?” Part-time
Perspectives. Ed. by C. Fagan-J. O'Reilly, Routledge, London, s. 177–198.
- Rasmussen, Erling-Lind, Jens- Visser, Jelle (2003), “Flexibility meets national
norms and regulations: part-time work in New Zealand, Denmark and the
Netherlands,” Thirteenth IIRA World Congress, Berlin, (8-12 September 2003).
- Sandor, Eszter (2011), European Company Survey 2009 Part-time work in
Europe, European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working
Conditions.
- Schmid, Günther (1997), “The Dutch Employment Miracle? A comparison of
employment systems in the Netherlands and Germany,” Social Science Research
Center Discussion Paper FS I 97-202, Berlin.
- Sirvent, Elena-Ferreiro, Jesús (2006), “Are all Female Part-Time Employees
Discriminated?: An Analysis of Substantial and Marginal Part-Timers Across Europe,”
3rd International Conference, Development in Economic Theory and Policy, Bilbao
6th-7th July 2006,
[http://www.genderequality.com.cy/main/data/articles/pdf/library/equality%20and
%20workplace%20flexibility/english/are%20all%20female%20parttime%20employees%20discriminated.pdf]. (28.02.2011)
- Tam, May (1997), Part-Time Employment: A Bridge or a Trap? Avebury
Publishing, Aldershot.
- Van de Pas, Irmgard Borghouts van de -Wilthagen, Ton (2009), “Flexicurity and
Employment Security: The Dutch Way,” The 2009 International Conference on the
Strategy of Labor market Flexicurity NTU convention centre, Taipei, Taiwan,
(December 8–10).
- Van der Does d Willebois, J. L. J. M. (1967), “A Workshop for Married Women
in Part-time Employment: Implications of an Experiment in the Netherlands”,
International Labour Review, Vol. 96, No. 6.
- Van der Meer, Marc-Leijnse, Frans (2004), “Life-course schemes and social
policy reform in the Netherlands”, Conference Papers 2004, Paper for session 8,
Flexicurity workshop KNAW-SISWO.
[http://www.siswo.uva.nl/tlm/confbuda/papers/papers_files/WP8%20van%20de%2
0MeerLeijnse%20-%20Life%20course%20schemes.PDF]. (28.02.2011)
- Van Hooren, Franca-Becker, Uwe (2009), “Explaining contradictory
developments in child and elderly care policies in the Netherlands,” The future of the
welfare state: paths of social policy innovation between constraints and opportunities
(Urbino, 17-19 September 2009), Paper presented at the 7th ESPAnet conference 2009
Session: 21 Explaining Recent Shifts in Family Policy.
- Van Klaveren, Maarten, Salverda, Wiemer-Tijdens, Kea (2009), “Retail jobs in
the Netherlands: Low pay in a context of long-term wage moderation”, International
Labour Review, Vol. 148, No. 4, s. 413-438.
- Van Oorschot, Wim (2003), “Dutch "flexicurity" policy: Flexibility and security
for Dutch workers?” Social security in a long life society, 4th International Research
Conference on Social Security (Antwerp, 5-7 May 2003).
- Van Oorschot, Wim (2004), “Trends and Experience in Dutch Flexible Work
and Flexicurity Policies”, 32.Kongress der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Soziologie
Soziale Ungleichheit-kulturelle Unterschiede, München.
- Van Oorschot, Wim (2006), “Dutch Welfare State: Recent Trends and
Challenges in Historical Perspective,” European Journal of Social Security, Vol. 8,
No.1, s. 57-76.
- Veldhoen, Marijke-van Doorne-Huiskes-Anneke, Schippers, Joop-den Dulk,
Laura-van der Lippe, Tanja (2006), National report the Netherlands Socio-economic
trends and welfare policies Deliverable 3.1–November, Utrecht University.
- Visse, Jelle-Wilthagen T–Beltzer, Ronald (2004), Part-time Employment in the
Netherlands: From Atypicality to a Typicality, [http://dare.uva.nl/document/39441].
(28.02.2011)
- Visser, Jelle (2000), The First Part-Time Economy in The World Does It Work?
Working Paper No. WP00-01, Amsterdam Institute for Advanced Labour Studies
University of Amsterdam.
- Wielers, Rudi-Raven, Dennis (2009), Part-time work and work norms in the
Netherlands, Discussion paper EqualSoc EMPLOY-FAMNET Workshop in Berlin,
Germany May 11–12.
- Wilthagen, Ton–Bekker, Sonja–Chung, Heejung–Rabhi, Mounia (2008), Decent
Work Country Report-Netherlands, International Labour Office Regional Office for
Europe and Central Asia.
- Yerkes, Mara (2009), “Part-time work in the Dutch welfare state: the ideal
combination of work and care?” Policy & Politics, Vol. 37, No. 4, s. 535–52.
- Yerkes, Mara (2010), “Diversity in Work: The Heterogeneity of Women’s
Employment Patterns,” Gender, Work and Organization. Vol. 17, No. 6 November, s.
696–720.