Didem Tuba AKÇALI, Demet COŞKUN, Hülya ÇELEBİ

Günübirlik anestezi prensipleri

Hasta sayısının ve hastanede kalış maliyetlerinin artışı ile hastaların ailelerinden ayrı kalmak istememesi son yıllarda günübirlik cerrahi ve anestezi uygulamalarında artışa neden olmuştur. Günübirlik cerrahi, uygun hastaya uygun koşullarda, doğru anestezi yöntemiyle uygun cerrahi girişim için yapıldığında gerçekten günübirlik olacaktır. Bu derlemede günübirlik cerrahide hasta seçimi, anestezi uygulamaları, postoperatif derlenme ve taburculuk döneminin özellikleri anlatılarak, günübirlik cerrahi merkezlerinde anestezistlerin rolünün önemine dikkat çekilmektedir. Gelecekte günübirlik uygulamaların daha güvenli ve başarılı olması için merkezlerin titizlikle hazırlanmış kılavuzlara uyması gereklidir.

Principles of outpatient anesthesia

Increased number of patients, high hospital fees and also the patients’ will to return home soon have produced a great tendency to outpatient surgery. When the suitable patient gets the best proper anesthesia for the reasonable surgery, this is really outpatient surgery. In this review, patient selection, anesthesia, postoperative recovery and discharge for outpatient surgery are discussed and the importance of the role of anesthesiologist for outpatient surgery clinics is emphasized. For successful outpatient surgery, each clinic must be aware to agree on fastidious guidelines

PDF

___

1. White PF, Freire AR. Ambulatory (Outpatient) Anesthesia in: Miller RD (ed) Miller’s Anesthesia Elsevier Churchill Livingstone, USA 6th ed, 2005; 2589-2637.
2. Yaster M, Sola JE, Pegoli W, Paidas CN. The night after surgery: Postoperative management of the pediatric outpatient-surgical and anesthetic aspects. Pediatric Clinics of North America 1994; 41:199-220.
3. National Assosiation of Health Authorities and Trusts (NAHAT). Day surgery: report of the day surgery task force. Birmingham: National Assosiation of Health Authorities and Trusts; 1993.
4. Reed WA, Ford JL. Development of an independent outpatient surgical center. Int Anesthesiol Clin 1976; 14:113.
5. http://www.sambahq.org
6. White PF (ed) Ambulatory anesthesia and surgery. London: WB Saunders, 1997.
7. White PF. Update in ambulatory anesthesia. Can J Anesth 2005; 82:R1-R10.
8. Ogg TW. Aspectcts of day surgery and anaesthesia. Anaesthesia Rounds, number 18, Imperial Chemical Industries PLC 1985.
9. Elliott RA, Payne K, Moore JK, Davies LM, Harper NJ, St Leger AS, Moore EW, Thoms GM, Pollard BJ, McHugh GA, Bennett J, Lawrence G, Kerr J. Which anaesthetic agents are cost-effective in day surgery? Literature review, national survey of practice and randomised controlled trial. Health Technol Assess. 2002; 6(30):1-264.
10. Snyder DS, Pasternak LR. Faculty design and procedural safety. In: White PF (ed) Ambulatory anesthesia and surgery. London: WB Saunders, 1997, 61.
11. Apfelbaum JL, Walawander CA, Grasela TH, Wise P, McLeskey C, Roizen MF, Wetchler BV, Korttila K. Eliminating intensive postoperative care in same-day surgery patients using short-acting anesthetics. Anesthesiology. 2002;97(1):66-74.
12. Liu SS, Strodtbeck WM, Richman JM, Wu CL. A comparison of regional versus general anesthesia for ambulatory anesthesia: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Anesth Analg. 2005;101(6):1634-42.
13. Preoperatif Hazırlık, TARD Anestezi Uygulamaları Kılavuzları, Türk Anesteziyoloji ve Reanimasyon Derneği (TARD), 2005 http://www.tard.org.tr/ Uygulama Kılavuzları.
14. Frezza EE, Girnys RP, Silich RJ, Coppa GF. Commentary: Quality of care and cost containment are the hospital-based ambulatory surgery challenges for the future. Am J Med Qual 2000; 15:114.
15. Rohrich RJ, White PF. Safety of outpatient surgery: Is mandatory accreditation of outpatient surgery center enough? Plast Reconstr Surg 2001; 107:189.
16. Servin F. Ambulatory anesthesia for the obese patient. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2006; 19(6):597-9.
17. Bryson GL, Chung F, Cox RG, Crowe MJ, Fuller J, Henderson C, Finegan BA, Friedman Z, Miller DR, van Vlymen J; Canadian Ambulatory Anesthesia Research Education group. Patient selection in ambulatory anesthesia - an evidence-based review: part II. Can J Anaesth. 2004; 51(8):782-94.
18. Fortier J, Chung F, Su J. Unanticipated admission after ambulatory surgery—prospective study. Can J Anaesth 1998; 45:612-9.
19. Bryson GL, Chung F, Finegan BA, Friedman Z, Miller DR, van Vlymen J, Cox RG, Crowe MJ, Fuller J, Henderson C; Canadian Ambulatory Anesthesia Research Education group. Patient selection in ambulatory anesthesia - an evidence-based review: part I. Can J Anaesth. 2004; 51(8):768-81.
20. Vallejo M, Sah Neera, Phelps AL, O’Donnell J, Romeo RC. Desflurane versus sevoflurane for laparoscopic gastroplasty in morbidly obese patients. Journal of Clinical Anesthesia 2007; 19:3-8.
21. Strum EM, Szenohradszki J, Kaufman WA, Anthone GJ, Manz IL, Lumb PD. Emergence and recovery characteristics of desflurane versus sevoflurane in morbidly obese adult surgical patientss: A prospective, Randomized study. Anesth Analg 2004;99:1848-53.
22. Gupta A, Strategies for outpatient anaesthesia. Best Practice&Research Clinical Anaesthesiology 2004; 18:675-92.
23. Bettelli G. Which muscle relaxants should be used in day surgery and when. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2006; 19:600-5.
24. Chung F, Mezei G, Tong D. Adverse events in ambulaatory surgery. A comparison between elderly and younger patients. Can J Anesth 1999;46:309-21.
25. American Society of Anesthesiologist task force on preanesthesia evaluation. Practice advisory for preanesthesia evaluation. Anesthesiology 2002; 96:485-96.
26. Lew E, Pavlin DJ, Amundsen L. Outpatient preanaesthesia evaluation clinics. Singapore Med J 2004; 45:509-16.
27. American Society of Anesthesiologists. Concensus advisory for preanesthesia evaluation. Anesthesiology 2002; 96:485-96.
28. Feld LH, Negus JB, White PF. Oral midazolam preanesthetic medication in pediatric outpatients. Anesthesiology 1990; 73:831.
29. Hargraves J. Benzodiazepine premedication in minor day case surgery: Comparison of oral midazolam and temazepam with placebo. Br J Anaesth 1988; 61:611.
30. Michaloliakou C, Chung F, Sharma S. Preoperative multimodal analgesia facilitates recovery after ambulatory laparascopic cholecyctectomy. Anesth Analg 1996; 83: 407.
31. Liu J, Ding Y, White PF, Feinstein R, Shear JM. Effects of ketorolac on postoperative analgesia and ventilatory function after laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Anesth Analg. 1993; 76(5):1061-6.
32. White PF, Eng M. Fast-track anesthetic techniques for ambulatory surgery. Anaesthesiol. 2007 Dec; 20(6):545-57.
33. Kovac AL. Management of postoperative nausea and vomiting in children. Paediatr Drugs 2007; 9:47-69.
34. Rawal N. Postdischarge complications and rehabilitation after ambulatory surgery. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2008; 21(6):736-42.
35. Liem MS, van der Graaf Y, van Steensel CJ, Boelhouwer RU, Clevers GJ, Meijer WS, Stassen LP, Vente JP, Weidema WF, Schrijvers AJ, van Vroonhoven TJ. Comparison of conventional anterior surgery and laparoscopic surgery for inguinal-hernia repair. N Engl J Med. 1997 29; 336(22):1541-7.
36. Taylor E, Ghouri AF, White PF. Midazolam in combination with propofol for sedation during local anesthesia. J Clin Anesth 1992; 4:213–216.
37. Arain SR, Ebert TJ. The efficacy, side effects, and recovery characteristics of dexmedetomidine versus propofol when used for intraoperative sedation. Anesth Analg 2002; 95:461–466.
38. Badrinath S, Avramov MN, Shadrick M, et al. The use of a ketamine-propofol combination during monitored anesthesia care. Anesth Analg 2000; 90:858–862.
39. Gesztesi Z, Sa Rego MM, White PF. The comparative effectiveness of fentanyl and its newer analogs during extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy under monitored anesthesia care. Anesth Analg 2000; 90:567–570.
40. Gupta A. Evidence-based medicine in day surgery. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2007;20:520-5.
41. Rosaeg OP, Bell M, Cicutti NJ, Dennehy KC, Lui AC, Krepski B. Pre-incision infiltration with lidocaine reduces pain and opioid consumption after reduction mammoplasty. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 1998; 23(6):575-9.
42. White PF, Song D. New criteria for fast-tracking after outpatient anesthesia: a comparision with the modified Aldrete’s scoring system. Anesth Analg 1999; 88:1069-72.
43. Smith I. Nitrous oxide in ambulatory anaesthesia: does it have a place in day surgical anaesthesia or is it just a threat for personel and the global environment? Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2006; 19:592-6 .
44. Moore JK, Elliott RA, Payne K, Moore EW, St Leger AS, Harper NJN, Pollard BJ, Kerr J. The effect of anaesthetic agents on induction, recovery and patient preferences in adult day case surgery: a 7-day follow-up randomized controlled trial. European Journal of Anaesthesiology 2008; 25:876-83.
45. Song D, Joshi GP, White PF. Fast-track eligibility after ambulatory anesthesia of desflurane, sevoflurane and propofol. Anesth Analg 1998; 8:267-736.
46. Joshi GP, Inagaki Y, White PF, Taylor-Kennedy L, Wat LI, Gevirtz C, McCraney JM, McCulloch DA. Use of Laryngeal Mask Airway as an Alternative to the tracheal tube during ambulatory anesthesia. Anesth Analg 1997; 85:573-7.
47. Tarazi EM, Philip BK. A comparison of recovery after sevoflurane or desflurane in ambulatory anesthesia. Journal of Clinical Anesthesia 1998; 10:272-7.
48. Fujisawa T, Miyamoto E, Takuma S, Shibuya M, Kurozumi A, Kimura Y, Kamekura N, Fukushima K. Recovery of dynamic balance after general anesthesia with sevoflurane in short-duration oral surgery. J of Anesthesia 2009; 23:57-60.
49. Ahmad S, Yilmaz M, Marcus RJ, Glison S, Kinsella A. Impact of bispectral index monitoring on fast tracking of gynecologic patients undergoing laparoscopic surgery. Anesthesiology 2003; 98;849-52.
50. Camci E, Koltka K, Celenk Y, Tugrul M, Pembeci K. Bispectral index-guided desflurane and propofol anesthesia in ambulatory arthroscopy: comparison of recovery and discharge profiles. J Anesth. 2006; 20(2):149-52.
51. Zohar E, Luban I, White PF, Ramati E, Shabat S, Fredman B. Bispectral index monitoring does not improve early recovery of geriatric outpatients undergoing brief surgical procedures. Can J Anaesth. 2006; 53(1):20-5.
52. Canet J, Raeder J, Rasmussen LS, Enlund M, Kuipers HM, Hanning CD, Jolles J, Korttila K, Siersma VD, Dodds C, Abildstrom H, Sneyd JR, Vila P, Johnson T, Muñoz Corsini L, Silverstein JH, Nielsen IK, Moller JT; ISPOCD2 investigators. Cognitive dysfunction after minor surgery in the elderly. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2003; 47(10):1204-10.
53. Chen X, Zhao M, White PF, Li S, Tang J, Wender RH, Sloninsky A, Naruse R, Kariger R, Webb T, Norel E.Anesth Analg 2001; 93:1489-94.
54. Erhan E, Ugur G, Gunusen I, Alper I, Ozyar B. Propofol - not thiopental or etomidate - with remifentanil provides adequate intubating conditions in the absence of neuromuscular blockade. Can J Anaesth. 2003; 50(2):108-15.
55. Philip BK. Regional anaesthesia for ambulatory surgery. Can J Anaesth. 1992; 39(5 Pt 2):R3-10.
56. Mingus ML. Recovery advantages of regional anesthesia compared with general anesthesia: adult patients. J Clin Anesth. 1995; 7(7):628-33.
57. Nielsen KC, Tucker MS, Steele SM. Outcomes after regional anesthesia. Int Anesthesiol Clin. 2005; 43(3):91-110.
58. Chan VWS, Peng PWH, Kaszas Z, et al. A comparative study of general anesthesia, intravenous regional anesthesia, and axillary block for outpatient hand surgery:clinical outcome and cost. Anesth Analg 2001; 93;1181-4.
59. Hilgenhurst G. The Bier block after 80 years: a historical review. Reg Anesth. 1990; 15(1):2-5.
60. Cooper JS, May JW Jr. Intravenous regional anesthesia toxicity in pregnancy. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2009; 124(1):182e-3e.
61. Mabee J, Orlinsky M. Bier block exsanguination: a volumetric comparison and venous pressure study. Acad Emerg Med. 2000; 7(2):105-13.
62. Plourde G, Barry PP, Tardif L, Lepage Y, Hardy JF. Decreasing the toxic potential of intravenous regional anaesthesia. Can J Anaesth. 1989; 36(5):498-502.
63. Mulroy MF, Salinas FV. Neuraxial techniques for ambulatory anesthesia. Int Anesthesiol Clin. 2005; 43(3):129-41
64. Urmey WF, Stanton J, Peterson M, Sharrock NE. Combined spinal-epidural anesthesia for outpatient surgery. Dose-response characteristics of intrathecal isobaric lidocaine using a 27-gauge Whitacre spinal needle. Anesthesiology. 1995; 83(3):528-34.
65. Joshi GP. Combined spinal/epidural anesthesia for outpatient surgery. Anesthesiology. 1996; 84(2):481-2.
66. Korhonen AM. Use of spinal anaesthesia in day surgery. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2006; 19(6):612-6.
67. Fritz KW, Seidlitz P. Spinal anesthesia for ambulatory arthroscopy. The view of the patients: results and patient's viewpoint. Anaesthesist. 1997; 46(5):430-3.
68. Pollock JE, Neal JM, Stephenson CA, Wiley CE. Prospective study of the incidence of transient radicular irritation in patients undergoing spinal anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1996; 84:1361-7.
69. Freedman JM, Li D, Drasner K et al. Anesthesiology 1998; 89: 633-41.
70. Pollock JE. Neurotoxicity of intrathecal local anaesthetics and transient neurological symptoms. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 2003; 17:471-84.
71. Julien RE, Williams BA. Regional anesthesia procedures for outpatient shoulder surgery. Int Anesthesiol Clin. 2005; 43(3):167-75.
72. Schneider M, Etlin T, Kaufmann M et al. Trancient neurologic toxicity after hyperbaric subarachnoid anesthesia with 5% lidocain. Anest Analg 1993; 76: 1154-7.
73. Urmey WF. Spinal anaesthesia for outpatient surgery Best Practice&Research Clinical Anaesthesiology 2003; 17:335-46.
74. Kaya M, Oguz S, Aslan K, Kadıoğulları NA. A low dose bupivacaine: a comparision of hyperbaric and hypobaric solution for unilateral spinal anesthesia. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2004; 29:17-22.
75. Casati A, Moizo E, Marrchetti C, Vinciguerra F. A prospective, randomized, double-blind comparision of unilateral spinal anesthesia with hyperbaric bupivacaine, ropivacaine or levobupivacaine for inguinal herniorrhapy. Anesth Analg 2004; 99:1387-92.
76. Maroof M, Khan RM, Siddique M, Tariq M. Hypobaric spinal anesthesia with bupivacaine (0.1%) gives selective sensory block for anorectal surgery. Can J Anaesth 1995; 42:691-4.
77. Badalov P, Çelebi H, Menteﬂ B. Comparison of spinal anesthesia with isobaric 0.5% bupivacaine in the prone or Jackknife position with hyperbaric 0.5% bupivacaine in the sitting positione for anorectal surgery. Gazi Medical Journal 2005; 16:176-9.
78. Çelebi H, Arslan M, Badalov P et al. Comparison of intrathecal 5 mg isobaric with 5 mg hyperbaric bupivacain for anorectal surgery. Acta Anaesth Italica 2006; 57:274-84.
79. Nair GS, Abrishami A, Lermitte J, Chung F. Systematic review of spinal anaesthesia using bupivacaine for ambulatory knee arthroscopy. Br J Anaesth. 2009; 102(3):307-15.
80. Cappelleri G, Casati A, Fanelli G, Borghi B, Anelati D, Berti M, Albertin A. Unilateral spinal anesthesia or combined sciatic-femoral nerve block for day-case knee arthroscopy. A prospective, randomized comparison. Minerva Anestesiol. 2000; 66(3):131-6.
81. Valenne JV, Korhonen AM, Jokela RM, Ravaska P, Korttila KK. Selective spinal anesthesia: a comparison of hyperbaric bupivacaine 4 mg versus 6 mg for outpatient knee arthroscopy. Anesth Analg 2001; 93:1377-9.
82. Ben-David B, Solomon E, Levin E, et al. Intrathecal fentanyl with small-dose dilute bupivacaine: better anesthesia without prolonging recovery. Anesth Analg 1997; 85:560-5.
83. Akçalı DT, Günaydın B, Çelebi H. Unilateral spinal anestezide düﬂük doz bupivakaine eklenen fentanilin motor ve duyusal blok üzerine etkileri. Anestezi Dergisi 2001; 9:270-4.
84. De Kock M, Gautier P, Fanard L, et al. İntrathecal ropivacaine and clonidine for ambulatory knee arthroscopy: a dose- response study. Anesthesiology 2001; 94:574-8.
85. Drasner K. Chloroprocaine spinal anesthesia: back to the future? Anesth Analg 2005; 100;549-52.
86. Klein SM, Evans H, Nielsen KC, Tucker MS, Warner DS, Steele SM. Peripheral nerve block techniques for ambulatory surgery. Anesth Analg. 2005; 101(6):1663-76.
87. Williams BA, Beaman ST, Kentor ML. Regional anesthesia group practice in the university hospital setting and ambulatory/regional anesthesia clinical pathway formulation. Int Anesthesiol Clin. 2005; 43(3):3-13.
88. Gebhard RE. Outpatient regional anesthesia for upper extremity surgery. Int Anesthesiol Clin. 2005; 43(3):177-83.
89. Klein SM, Nielsen KC, Greengrass RA, et al. Ambulatory discharge after long-acting peripheral nerve blockade: 2382 blocks with ropivacaine. Anesth Analg 2002; 94:65–70.
90. Koscielniak-Nielsen ZJ. Ultrasound-guided peripheral nerve blocks: what are the benefits? Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2008; 52(6):727-37.
91. Hadzic A, Williams BA, Karaca PE, Hobeika P, Unis G, Dermksian J, Yufa M, Thys DM, Santos AC. For outpatient rotator cuff surgery, nerve block anesthesia provides superior same-day recovery over general anesthesia. Anesthesiology. 2005; 102(5):1001-7.
92. D’Alessio JG, Rosenblum M, Shea KP, Freitas DG. A retrospective comparison of interscalene block and general anesthesia for ambulatory surgery shoulder arthroscopy. Reg Anesth 1995; 20: 62–8.
93. Klein SM, Grant SA, Greengrass RA, Nielsen KC, Speer KP, White W, Warner DS, Steele SM. Interscalene brachial plexus block with a continuous catheter insertion system and a disposable infusion pump. Anesth Analg. 2000; 91(6):1473-8.
94. Franco CD, Vieira ZE. 1,001 subclavian perivascular brachial plexus blocks: success with a nerve stimulator. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2000; 25(1):41-6.
95. Borgeat A, Ekatodramis G, Dumont C. An evaluation of the infraclavicular block via a modified approach of the Raj technique. Anesth Analg 2001; 93:436–41.
96. Jandard C, Gentili ME, Girard F, et al. Infraclavicular block with lateral approach and nerve stimulation: extent of anesthesia and adverse effects. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2002; 27:37– 42.
97. Desroches J. The infraclavicular brachial plexus block by the coracoid approach is clinically effective: an observational study of 150 patients. Can J Anaesth 2003; 50:253–7.
98. De Tran QH, Clemente A, Doan J, Finlayson RJ. Brachial plexus blocks: a review of approaches and techniques. Can J Anaesth. 2007; 54(8):662-74
99. Ilfeld BM, Morey TE, Enneking FK. Continuous infraclavicular brachial plexus block for postoperative pain control at home: a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled study. Anesthesiology 2002; 96:1297–304.
100. Ilfeld BM, Morey TE, Enneking FK. Infraclavicular perineural local anesthetic infusion: a comparison of three dosing regimens for postoperative analgesia. Anesthesiology 2004; 100:395-402.
101. Rawal N, Allvin R, Axelsson K, Hallén J, Ekbäck G, Ohlsson T, Amilon A. Patient-controlled regional analgesia (PCRA) at home: controlled comparison between bupivacaine and ropivacaine brachial plexus analgesia. Anesthesiology. 2002; 96(6):1290-6.
102. Rawal N, Axelsson K, Hylander J, et al. Postoperative patient controlled local anesthetic administration at home. Anesth Analg 1998; 86:86-9.
103. Parkinson SK, Mueller JB, Little WL, Bailey SL. Extent of blockade with various approaches to the lumbar plexus. Anesth Analg 1989; 68:243-8.
104. Kardash K, Hickey D, Tessler MJ, Payne S, Zukor D, Velly AM. Obturator versus femoral nerve block for analgesia after total knee arthroplasty. Anesth Analg. 2007; 105(3):853-8.
105. Greengrass RA, Nielsen KC. Management of peripheral nerve block catheters at home. Int Anesthesiol Clin. 2005; 43(3): 79-87
106. Ilfeld BM, Ball ST, Gearen PF, Le LT, Mariano ER, Vandenborne K, Duncan PW, Sessler DI, Enneking FK, Shuster JJ, Theriaque DW, Meyer RS. Ambulatory continuous posterior lumbar plexus nerve blocks after hip arthroplasty: a dual-center, randomized, triple-masked, placebo-controlled trial. Anesthesiology. 2008; 109(3):491-501.
107. Cote CJ, Zaslavsky A, Downes JJ, Kurth CD, Welborn LG,, Warner LO, Malviya SV. Postoperative apnea in former preterm infants after inguinal herniorrhaphy. A combined analysis. Anesthesiology. 1995; 82: 809-22.
108. Bailey CR. Management of outpatient ear, nose and throat surgery. Current opinion in Anaesthesiology 2001; 14:617-21.
109. Wilson C. Paediatric fluids,2005 www.AnaesthesiaUK.com /WorldAnaesthesia.
110. Hannallah RS, Rosales JK. Experience with parents' presence during anaesthesia induction in children. Can Anaesth Soc J. 1983; 30(3 Pt 1):286-9.
111. Hannallah RS. Pediatric ambulatory anesthesia: role of parents. J Clin Anesth. 1995; 7(7):597-9.
112. Levine MF, Spahr-Schopfer IA, Hartley E, Lerman J, MacPherson B. Oral midazolam premedication in children: the minimum time interval for separation from parents. Can J Anaesth. 1993; 40(8):726-9.
113. Hannallah RS, Patel RI. Low-dose intramuscular ketamine for anesthesia pre-induction in young children undergoing brief outpatient procedures. Anesthesiology. 1989;70(4):598-600.
114. Funk W, Jacob W, Reidl D, Taeger D. Oral preanaesthetic premedication for children:double-blind randomized study of a combination of midazolam and ketamine vs midazolam or ketamine alone. Br J Anaesth 2000; 84: 335-40
115. Saint-Maurice C, Laguenie G, Couturier C, Goutail-Flaud F. Rectal ketamine in paediatric anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth. 1979; 51(6):573-4.
116. Sury MR. Paediatric sedation. Continuing Education in Anaesthesia, Critical Care&Pain 2004; 4:118-22.
117. Meyers EF, Charles P. Prolonged adverse reactions to ketamine in children. Anesthesiology. 1978; 49(1): 39-40.
118. Nieman CC. Common problems in pediatric outpatient surgery. UCSD Anesthesia update, 2007.
119. Lönnqvist PA, Morton NS. Posoperatif analgesia in infants and children Br J Anaesth. 2005; 95: 59-68.
120. Morton NS. Local and regional anaesthesia in infants. Continuing Education in Anaesthesia, Critical Care & Pain 2004; 4:148-51.
121. Aldrete JA. The post-anesthesia recovery score revisited. J Clin Anesth. 1995;7(1):89-91.
122. Awad IT, Chung F. Factors affecting recovery and discharge following ambulatory surgery. Can J Anaesth. 2006; 53(9):858-72.
123. Tang J, Wang B, White PF, Watcha MF, Qi J, Wender RH. The effect of timing of ondansetron administration on its efficacy, cost-effectiveness, and cost-benefit as a prophylactic antiemetic in the ambulatory setting. Anesth Analg. 1998 Feb; 86(2):274-82.
124. Zarate E, Watcha MF, White PF, Klein KW, Sa Rego M, Stewart DG. A comparison of the costs and efficacy of ondansetron versus dolasetron for antiemetic prophylaxis. Anesth Analg. 2000 Jun; 90(6):1352-8.
125. Carroll NV, Miederhoff P, Cox FM, Hirsch JD. Postoperative nausea and vomiting after discharge from outpatient surgery centers. Anesth Analg. 1995; 80(5):903-9.
126. Watcha MF, White PF. Postoperative nausea and vomiting. Its etiology, treatment, and prevention. Anesthesiology. 1992; 77(1):162-84.
127. Cohen MM, Duncan PG, DeBoer DP, Tweed WA. The postoperative interview: assessing risk factors for nausea and vomiting. Anesth Analg. 1994; 78(1):7-16.
128. Wu CL, Berenholtz SM, Pronovost PJ, Fleisher LA. Systematic review and analysis of postdischarge symptoms after outpatient surgery. Anesthesiology. 2002; 96(4):994-1003.
129. Apfel CC, Kranke P, Katz MH, Goepfert C, Papenfuss T, Rauch S, Heineck R, Greim CA, Roewer N. Volatile anaesthetics may be the main cause of early but not delayed postoperative vomiting: a randomized controlled trial of factorial design. Br J Anaesth. 2002; 88(5):659-68.
130. Montes Fr, Trillos JE, Rincon IE, Giraldo JC, Rincon JD, Vanegas MV, Charris H. Comperation of total intravenöz anesthesia for outpatient otorhinolaryngeal surgery. Journal of Clinical Anesthesia 2002; 14:324-28
131. Figueredo E, Canosa L. Prophylactic ondansetron for post-operative emesis: meta-analysis of its effectiveness in patients with and without a previous history of motion sickness. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 1999; 16(8):556-64
132. Shnaider I, Chung F.Outcomes in day surgery. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2006; 19(6):622-9.
133. Pavlin DJ, Pavlin EG, Fitzgibbon DR, Koerschgen ME, Plitt TM. Management of bladder function after outpatient surgery. Anesthesiology. 1999 Jul; 91(1):42-50.
134. Chung F, Ritchie E, Su J. Postoperative pain in ambulatory surgery. Anesth Analg. 1997; 85(4):808-16.
135. Pavlin JD, Kent CD. Recovery after ambulatory anesthesia. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2008; 21(6):729-35.