ESNEKLİK KAVRAMI ve EMEK PİYASALARINDA ESNEKLİK

Küreselleşme ve hızlı teknolojik değişme, dünya ekonomisinde geniş kapsamlı bir yeniden yapılanmayla birlikte köklü değişiklilere yol açmaktadır. Bu değişim, emek süreci, çalışma ilişkileri ve emek piyasalarını da derinden etkilemekte ve dönüştürmektedir. Savaş sonrası dönemi karakterize eden Fordist-Taylorist üretim modeli bu değişime ayak uyduramayıp çökerken, temel özelliği esnek olan post-fordist bir üretim modeli tüm dünyada yaygınlaşmaktadır. Bu değişim ve dalgalanma, işletmelerin ve emek sürecinin esnek olmasını gerektirmektedir. Son otuz yıla damgasını vurmasına rağmen, esnek çalışma ve emek piyasalarında esneklik konusunda ne ortak bir yaklaşım ne bir tanım mevcuttur. Bu kavramının farklı boyutlarının incelenmesinde benzer bir durum söz konusudur. Esnekliğin ve esnek çalışmasının boyutları ile ilgili olarak farklı yazarların farklı kavram ve tanımlar kullandıkları, aynı kavramı kullansalar bile tam olarak aynı şeyleri kast etmedikleri görülmektedir. Gerek işveren ve gerekse de işçiler için de bu kavram oldukça farklı şeyler ifade etmektedir. Kısmen bu farklılık kısmen ülkelerin tarihsel geçmişi, endüstriyel teamül ve gelenekleri, çalışma ilişkileri ve kısmen de yazarların ideolojik yaklaşımlarıyla ilişkilendirilse de bu alanda kavramsal bir kargaşa süregitmektedir. Bu çalışmada, esneklik kavramının ve emek piyasalarındaki türlerinin ne olduğu açıklanmaktadır. Globalization and rapid technological change have resulted in a major restructuring process in the world economy along with extensive alterations. These changes have transformed considerably labour process, labour relations, labour markets. While the Fordist-Taylorist production methods characterizing the post-war epoch failed to adjust to the changes and collapsed, a new production paradigm whose basic feature is flexibility, expanding all over the world. This change and fluctuations require firms being more flexible. Although characterizing the last 30 years, there is no common definition or an approach about the flexible working and flexibility in labour markets. This is also a case for the analyses of the different aspects of the term. In relation to the aspects of flexibility and flexible working, it has been observed that different writer use different terms and concepts for the same thing, even they uses the same concept they do not mean the same thing. These terms mean quite different things for workers than employers. Although this differences can be partially be attributed to each country's past industrial practice and traditions and labour relations and also to the ideological approach of the writers the conceptual confusion sill continues. This study intends to explain the type of flexible working and flexibility in labour markets.  

___

  • Ackroyd, Stephen & Stephen Procter, (1998), "British Manufacturing Organisation and Workplace Relations: Some Attributes of the New Flexible Firm", British Journal of Industrial Relations, Vol.: 36, No: 2, pp.163-183.
  • Arrowsmith, James, (2007), "Industrial Relations i n the Postal Sector - U K " , (Online): http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/eiro/studies/tn0704018s/ uk0704019q.htm, 12.11.2010.
  • Arthur Andersen, (1995), New Directions in Finance: Strategic Outsourcing, Economist Intelligent Unit.
  • Askenazy, Philippe, (2004), "Shorter Work Time, Hours Flexibility and Labor Intensification", Eastern Economic Journal, Vol.: 30, No: 4, pp. 603-614.
  • Atkinson, John, (1987), "Flexibility or Fragmentation? The United Kingdom labour market i n the Eighties", Labour and Society, 12 (1), pp. 87-105.
  • Autor, David H . , (2003), "Outsourcing at Will,Unjust Dismissal Doctrine and the Growth of Temporary Help Employment", Journal of Labor Economics, Vol.: 21, No: 1, pp. 1-42.
  • Avery, Christine & Diane Zabel, (2001), The Flexible Workplace: A Sourcebook of Information and Research, Westport: Quorum Books. S3 S4
  • Axelrod, Jonathan G., (1987), "Who's the Boss? Employer Leasing and the Joint Employer Relationship", The Labor Lawyer, Issue: 2, pp. 853-872.
  • Barry D y m , (1998), "Changing the Workplace for Retirement-age Boomers", Baltimore Sun, September 29, 1998 http://articles.baltimoresun.com/ 1998-09-29/news/1998272093_1_early-retirement-retirement-time-aging- and-retirement.
  • Bastina, Jens, (1994), " W o r k Sharing: the Reappearance of a Timely Idea", Political Quarterly, Vol. 65, Issue: 3, pp. 302-312.
  • Bauer, Frank & Hermann Groß & Georg Sieglen, (2007), "Methodology of the EUCOWE Project", i n : L. Delsen, D. Bosworth, H . Groß, R. Muñoz de Bustillo y Llorente (eds.) Operating Hours and Working Times: A Survey of Capacity Utilisation and Employment in the European Union, Heidelberg: Physica Verlag, pp. 21-40.
  • Beese, Birgit, (2006), "Comparative Survey on Operating Hours and Working Time", (Online): http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/ewco/2006/05/ DE0605059I.htm.
  • Bell, David N . F. & Robert A. Hart & Olaf Hübler & Wolfgang Schwerdt, (2000), Paid and Unpaid Overtime Working in Germany and the U K , I Z A DP 133, Bonn.
  • Benner, Chris, (2002), Works in the New Economy: Flexible Labour Markets in Silicon Valley, London: Basil Blackwell.
  • Bielenski, Harald, (1999), " N e w Patterns of Employment i n Europe", Labour Market Changes and Job Insecurity: A Challenge for Social Welfare and Health Promotion, Jane E. Ferrie, John Griffiths, Michael G. Marmot, Erio Ziglio (eds.), W H O Regional Publications European Series No: 18.
  • Blossfeld, Hans & Catherine Hakim (eds.), (1998), Between Equalisation and Marginalisation: Women Working Part-Time in Europe and the United States of Amerika, New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Boyer, Robert, (1990), "The Capital Labor Relations i n OECD Countries: from the Fordist "Golden Age" to Contrasted National Trajectories",Working Paper CEPREMAP n. 9020, Paris
  • Brainard, Keith, (2002), "Phased Retirement Overview: Summary of Research and Practices", Prepared for the NASRA Phased Retirement Committee. Retrieved July 26, 2005, (Online): http://www.nasra.org/resources/ Phased % 20Retirement% 20Overview.pdf.
  • Brewster, Chris & A . Hegewisch & L. Mayne, (1993) , "Trends i n H R M i n Western Europe", i n Kirkbride, P. (ed.), Human Resource Management in the New Europe of the 1990s, London: Routledge Publ., pp. 114-132.
  • Burchell, Brendan & David Ladipo & at. al. (eds.), (2QQ2), Job Insecurity and Work Intensification, London: Routledge Publ.
  • Castells, Manual, (1996), The Rise of Network Society, London: Wiley- Blackwell.
  • Cave, Katherine E., (1997), Zero Hours Contracts, A Report into the Incidence and Implications of Such Contracts.Huddersfield: University of Huddersfield.
  • Chris, Brewster & Olga Tregaskis & Ariane Hegewisch Lesley Mayne, (1996), "Comparative Research i n Human Resource Management : a Review and an Example", The International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 7, No. 3, 1996, pp. SSS-6Q4.
  • Curson, Chris, (19S6) Flexible Patterns of Work, London: Institute of Personnel Development.
  • Dinatale, Marisa, (2QQ1), "Alternative Work Arrangements", Monthly Labor Review, Vol. 124, No. 3, March, pp.3-2S.
  • EC, (2QQ7), "Temporary Agency Work i n the European Union", (Online): http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/ewco/reports/TNQ4QSTRQ1/TNQ4QS TRQ1.pdf.
  • EIROLINE, (2QQ3), Annualised Hours i n Europe, (Online): http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/eiro/2QQ3/QS/study/ tnQ3QS1Q1s.htm, 12.Q2.2Q1Q.
  • EIROLINE, (2QQ9), "Economic Crisis leads to Extensive Use of Work-Sharing", (Online): http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/eiro/2QQ9/Q3/articles/ dkQ9Q3Q21i.htm, 12.Q2.2Q1Q.
  • EUROFOUND, (2QQS), Part-Time Work in Europe, Euroepan Foundation for Improving Living and Working Condition Publ., 2QQS'den yazar tarafından derlenmiştir.
  • EUROFOUND, (2QQ7), Telework in the Euroepan Union, Dublin, 2QQS.
  • EUROSTAT, (2QQS), (Online) : http://www.eurostat.theme3/employ/indic_y/ pt_emp_rt, 2S.Q4.2QQ9.
  • EUROSTAT, (2007), Statistic i n Focus Men and Women Employed on Fixed- Term Contracts Involuntarily Eurostat, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu / cache/ITY_OFFPUB/ KS-SF-07-098/EN/ KS-SF-07-098-EN.PDF
  • EUROSTAT, (2010), " M e n and Women Employed on Fixed-Term Contracts Involuntarily", (Online): http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ ITY_OFFPUB/KS-SF-07-098/EN/KS-SF-07-098-EN.PDF, 17.09.2010.
  • Eyrenci, Öner, (1993), "Türkiye'de Çalışma Sürelerinin Esnekleştirilmesi", Çalışma Hayatında Esneklik, Yaşar Eğitim ve Kültür Vakfı, (Çeşme Altın Yunus, 27-31 Ekim 1993), İzmir.
  • Feber, Marianne A. & Stephan A. Herzenberg & Francoise, Carre, (2000), Nonstandard Work: The Nature and Challneges of Changing Employment Arrangemnst, Univristy of Illinois: Industrial Relatiosn Resecah Association.
  • Fernandez Macias & Bustillo Llorente, (2009), "Capacity Utilisation, Working Time and the Quality of Work", Comparative Analyses of Operating Hours and Working Times in the European Union, (eds) Smith, Mark, Cette, Gilbert Bauer, Frank Delsen, Lei, Springer.
  • Fudge, Judy & Rosemary Owens (eds.), (2006), Precarious Work, Women and the New Economy: the Challenge to Legal Norms, Onati International Series i n Law and Society, Portland Oregon: Hart Publ.
  • Furaker, Bengt, (2009), "Unemployment and social Protection" i n M . Giugni (ed). The Politics of Unemployment i n Europe Policy Responses and Collective Action, Surrey: Ashgate
  • Gallie, Duncan, (2004), "Changing Patterns of Task Discretion i n Britain", Work, Employment & Society, Vol.: 18, No: 2, pp. 243-266
  • Gareis, Karsten & Norber Kordey, (2005), "Spread of Telework 2005", (Online): http://www.ecatt.com/ news/ madrid_paper(final).pdf, 04.09.2010.
  • Gartner Dataques, (2004), Teleworking: the Quiet Revolution (Online): http://www.gartner.com/id=454712
  • Gärtner, Johannes & Stephen Popkin (1999), "Influence of Law on Shift Schedule Design: USA & Europe", i n Shiftwork in the 21st Century: Challenges for Research and Practice, Proceedings of the XIV. International Symposium on Night and Shiftwork, Hornberger S. & Knauth P. & Costa G. & Folkard S., Wie-sensteig, Germany, Peter Lang Verlag, Frankfurt, 13-17 Sept. 1999.
  • Glorieux, Ignace. & Inge Mestdag & Joeri Minnen & Jessie Vandeweyer, (2008), "The M y t h of the 24-Hour Society: Non-Standard Working Hours i n Belgium, 1966 and 1999", Time & Society, Vol.: 17, No: 1, pp. 63-83.
  • Gottlieb, Benjamin H . & E. Kevin Kelloway & Elizabeth Barham, (1998), Flexible Work Arrangements: Managing the Work-Family Boundary, Chichester: John Wiley and Sons Publ.
  • GULC, (2010), Flexible Work Arrangements: The Fact Sheet", (Online): http://www.law.georgetown.edu/ workplaceflexibility2010/ definition/ general/FWA_FactSheet.pdf, 16.06.2010.
  • Harrison, Bennett & Kelley, Maryellen, (1993), "Outsourcing and the Search for Flexibility", Work, Employment & Society, Vol. 7, Issue: 2, pp. 213-235.
  • Hart, Robert A., (2004), The Economics of Overtime Working, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
  • Houseman, Susan N . & Machiko Osawa, (1998), "What is the Nature of Partı Time Employment i n the USA and Japan", Part-Time Prospects: A n International Comparison of Part-Time Work in Europe and North America and Pacific Rim, J. O. Reilly, Colette Fagan (eds.) New York: Routledge Publ., pp. 232-251.
  • Houseman, Susan, (1997), "Temporary, Part-Time, and Contract Employment: A Report on the W.E. Upjohn Institute's Employer Survey on Flexible Staffing Arrangements", Report prepared for the U.S. Department of Labor, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Policy.
  • Hunt, Jennifer, (1998), Hours Reductions as Work-Sharing, Brookings Papers i n Economic Activity 1: 349-381.
  • Illingworth, Montieth M . , (1994), "Workers on the Net, Unite " Information Week (August 22, 1994).
  • ILO, (2004a), On-Call Work and "Zero Hours" Contracts http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/- --travail/documents/publication/wcms_170714.pdf
  • ILO, (2004b), "Shift Work", http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/--- ed_protect/---protrav/--- travail/documents/publication/wcms_170713.pdf
  • ILO, (2004d), "Overtime", http://ilo-mirror.library.cornell.edu/public/ english/protection/condtrav/pdf/infosheets/wt-2.pdf
  • IMS, (2009), "Annualised Hours", (Online): http://www.ims- productivity.com/page.cfm/content/Annualised-Hours/
  • Innovisions, (2005), "US Teleworking Scene-Stat and Facts", (Online): http://www.ivc.ca/studies/us.html, 17.07.2010.
  • Işığıçok, Özlem, (2006), "Küreselleşme ve Çalışma Hayatında Esnekliğe İlişkin Genel Bir Değerlendirme", (Online): http://iktisat.uludag.edu.tr/ dergi/ 9/ 06-ozlem/ozlem.htm, 04.06.2010.
  • Kalleberg, Arne L. (2000), "Nonstandard Employment Relations: Part-time, Temporary and Contract Work", Annual Review of Sociology, Issue: 26, pp. 341-65.
  • Kalleberg, Arne L., (2001), "Organizing Flexibility: the Flexible Firm i n a New Century", British Journal of Industrial Relations, Vol. 39, No: 4, pp. 479-504.
  • Keller, Berndt & Hartmut Seifert, (2004), "Flexicurity - the German Trajectory", Transfer, Vol.: 10, Issue: 2, pp. 226-247.
  • Korte, W. B. & Karsten Gareis, (2007), E-Work in Europe, Empirica, 12th International Workshop on Telework, Lillehammer, 2007, (Online): http://www.empirica.biz/publikationen/documents/2007/gareis_keyn ote%28final%29.pdf .
  • Lane, Christel, (1995), "Industry and Society i n Europe: Stability and Change i n Britain, Germany and France", Aldershot: Edward Elgar.
  • Lee, Sangheon & Deirdre McCann & Jon C. Messenger, (2007), Working Time Around the World: Trends in Working Hours, Laws and Policies in a Gobal Comparative Perspective, International Labour Organization, London: Routledge Publ.
  • Lehndorff, Steffen, (2009), Work Sharing in the Jobs Crisis, ILO Thematic Dialogue Wages and Working Conditions.
  • Mandin, Christelle, (2004), "Active Ageing i n Europe", Paper presented to the ESPAnet Conference, Oxford, UK, 9-11 September.
  • McMenamin, Terence M . , (2007), " A Time to Work: Recent Trends i n Shift Work and Flexible Schedules", Monthly Labor Review, ,Vol. 130, Issue: 12, pp. 3-15.
  • Meulders, Daniele & Luc Wilkin, (1987), "Labor Market Flexibility: Critical Introduction to the Analysis of a Concept", Labor and Society, Vol.: 12, No: l, p. 8.
  • Messenger, Jon C , (2004), Working Times and Workers' Prefernces in Indu. Exel, (1996), Managing Contingent Workers: How to Reap the Benefits and Reduce the Risk, New York: American Management Association.
  • Nadler, Joel T. & Nicole L. Cundiff, (2006), "Evaluations of Work Schedule Flexibility: Issues of Methodology, Measurement, and Construct Definition within Flextime Programs", (Online): http://www.midwestacademy.org/ proceedings/2007/ papers/ mam07p16.pdf
  • Nollen, Stanley D., (1982), New Work Schedules in Practice: Managing Time in a Changing Society, Van Nostrand Reinhold/Work i n America Institute Series.
  • OECD, (2009), "Permenant Employment", (Online): http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=TEMP_I
  • Ogura, Kazuya, (2005), "International Comparision of Atypical Employment: Differing Concepts and Realities i n Industrialized Countries", Japan Labour Review, Vol.: 2, Number: 2, April, pp. 5-29,
  • Olmsted, Barney, & Smith, Suzanne, (1997), Managing in a Flexible Workplace, New York: American Management Association.
  • OSL, 2004, "Working Overtime, (Online): http://www.osl.upf.edu/pdfs/working_overtime.pdf, 19.07.2010.
  • Pedersini, R., (2001), "Progressive Retirement i n Europe", European Industrial Relations Observatory, (Online): http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/eiro/.
  • Pillay, Devan, (1999), "The Human Cost of Subcontracting/Outsourcing", Journal of South African Mining and Metallurgy, July/August, pp. 193-196.
  • Piotet, Francoise, (1988), The Changing Face of Work: Researching and Debating the Issues, Luxembourg : Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.
  • Polivka, Anne E., (1996), "Contingent and Alternative Work Arrangements", Monthly Labor Review, Vol. 119, Issue: 10, pp. 3-9.
  • Pollert, Anna, (1988b), "The 'Flexible Firm': Fixation or Fact?", Work, Employment and Society, Vol.: 2, Issue: 3, pp. 281-316.
  • Pollert, Anna, (1991), "The Orthodoxy of Flexibility" i n Polletr, A. (ed), Farewell to Flexibility, Blackwell, Oxford.
  • Pratt, Joanne Henderson & John A. Davis, (1985), Measurement and Evaluation of the Populations of Family-Owned and Home-Based Businesses, Dallas.
  • Purcell, Kate, & John Purcell, (1998), " In-Sourcing, out-Sourcing, and the Growth of Contingent Labor as Evidence of Fexible Employment Strategies", European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 7, Issue: 1, pp. :39-59.
  • Rau, Barbara L., (2003), "Flexible Work Arrangements", Work Family Encyclopedia. Sloan Work-Family Network, (Online): http://wfnetwork.bc.edu/encyclopedia_entry.php?id=240&area (23,07.2009).
  • Rebitzer, James B., (1996), "Job Safety and Contract Workers i n the Petrochemical Industry", Industrial Relations, Vol.: 34, Issue: 1, pp. 40-57.
  • Reilly, P. Gower, (2001), "Flexibility at Work: Balancing the Interest of Employer and Employee", Burlington VT: Gower.
  • Ronen, Simcha, (1984), "Alternative Work Schedules: Selecting, Implementing, and Evaluating", Homewood, IL: Dow Jones-Irwin.
  • Rubery, Jill & Roger Tarling & Frank Wilkinson, (1987), "Flexibility, Marketing and the Organization of Production", Labour and Society, Issue: 12, pp. 131-156.
  • Seifert, Hartmut, (2000), "Competition, Flexibility and Working Hours", WSI- Discussion Paper No. 78, (Online): http://www.boeckler.de/pdf/p_wsi_diskp_078.pdf
  • Sennet, Richard, (1998), The Corrosion of Character: The Personal Consequences of Work in the New Capitalism, New York: W W Norton & Company Publ.
  • Sherer, Peter D., (1996), "Towards an Understanding of the Variety i n Work Arragements: The Organisation and Labor Relationship Framework" i n C. L. Cooper ve D. M . Rousseau (eds.) Trends in Organizational Behavior, Vol. 3, Chichester: John Wiley, pp. 99-122.
  • Smith, Michael R., & Anthony C. Masi & Axel van den Berg & Joseph Smucker, (1995), "External Flexibility i n Sweden and Canada: a three industry comparison". Work, Employment and Society, Vol. 9, pp. 689-718.
  • Standing, Guy, (1999), Global Labour Flexibility: Seeking Distributive Justice Standing, Palgrave- MacMillan Publ.
  • Stone, Katherine V. W., (2004), From Widget to Digits: Employment Regulation for the Changing Workplace, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Stredwick, John & Steve Allis, (2002), Flexible Working Practices: Techniques and Innovations, London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development,
  • Tregaskis, Olga & Chris Brewster & Lesley Mayne & Ariane Hegewisch, (1998), "Flexible Working i n Europe: the Evidence and the Implications", European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 7, No: 1, s. 61-78.
  • Tucker, Philip, (2006), "Compressed Working Weeks", Conditions of Work and Employment Series, No: 12.
  • Tuominen, Eila & Mervi Takala & Kristiina Tuominen, (2005), "Employers and the Flexible Retirement Age. Employer Views on the Finnish Pension Reform i n 2005 and Older Employee is Continued Work", Finnish Centre for Pensions. Working Papers 2005:3, Helsinki.
  • USBLO, (2008), "Involuntary Part-time Work on the Rise", http://www.bls.gov/opub/ils/pdf/opbils71.pdf
  • Venne, Rosmery A.,(1997), "The Impact of the Compressed Workweek on Absenteeism", Relations Industrielles, Vol.: 52, No: 2, pp. 382-400.
  • Worldatwork.org, (2009), "Telework Trendlines 2009", (Online): Evaluations of Work Schedule Flexibility: Issues of Methodology, Measurement, and Construct Definition within Flextime.